The Origins of War in Mozambique: A History of Unity and Division

Sayaka Funada-Classen. Translated By Masako Osada

Description

The independence of Mozambique in 1975 and its decolonisation process attracted worldwide attention as a successful example of “national unity”. Yet, the armed conflict that broke out between the government and the guerrilla force in 1977 lasted for sixteen years and resulted in over a million deaths and several million refugees, placing this concept of “national unity” into doubt.For nearly twenty years, Sayaka Funada-Classen interviewed people in rural communities in Mozambique. By examining their testimonies, historical documents, previous studies, international and regional politics, and the changes that various interventions under colonialism brought to the traditional social structure, this book demonstrates that the seeds of “division” had already been planted while the liberation movement was seeking “unity” in the struggle years.Presenting a comprehensive history of contemporary Mozambique, this book is indispensable for Mozambican scholars. It promises to serve as a landmark study not only for historians and the scholars of African studies but also for those who give serious consideration to the problems of conflict and peace in the world.REVIEW“The Origins of War in Mozambique vividly describes the past one hundred-year history of Mozambique, through the painstaking examination of archives and meticulous field research. It has opened up a new direction in the study of African history, freely adopting methods of different disciplines such as international relations, African history, social anthropology and area studies.” (From a review of the Japanese edition of The Origins of War in Mozambique in African Study 78)ABOUT THE AUTHORSayaka Funada-Classen is an Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Tokyo University of Foreign Studies (TUFS) where she teaches African Affairs, Peace and Conflict Studies, and Portuguese. She was a representative of a Japanese NGO, Mozambique Support Network, established in 2000 after the Mozambique Great Flood, and vice chairperson of the International Conference on African Development (TICAD) Civil Society Forum, a Japanese advocacy NGO, from 2004 to 2009. She is currently the chairperson of the Project in Response to Needs of Infants, Children, and Pregnant Women of Fukushima established by the citizens after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Nuclear Crisis in March 2011.She worked as an electoral officer for the United Nations Mozambique Operations (ONUMOZ) in post-conflict Mozambique in 1994. This experience gave her an opportunity to learn about Africa and about the challenges of peace-building. Since then, she has been engaged in studies about Mozambique. She obtained a Ph.D. degree in International Relations from Tsuda College in June 2006. She received an award from the Japan Association for African Studies in 2008 for her book History of Armed Liberation Struggle in Mozambique (published in Japanese under the title Mozanbiku kaiho toso shi).Funada-Classen is a member of the Japan Association for African Studies, Japan Association of International Relations, the Peace Studies Association of Japan and the Japan Society of International Development. Funada-Classen is a lecturer and workshop facilitator for the “Enhancement of Governance for Building Peace in Francophone Africa” training programme organised by JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) from 2010. She is also the founder and co-organiser of the project “AfricaxJapanxWorld: Transforming Violence into Peace” which was supported by the Japan Foundation.

Sujets

• Politique

Informations

• Publié par: African Minds
• Date de parution: 28 mai 2013
• Nombre de lectures: 0
• EAN13: 9781920489977
• Langue: English
• Poids de l'ouvrage: 3 Mo

Extrait

T H E OR IG I N S OF WA R I N MOZ A M BIQU E A Hîstory o Unîty and Dîvîsîon

Sayaka Funada-Cassen

Transated by Masako Osada

AFRICAN MINDS

he autor aone îs responsîbe or wat îs wrîtten and a te înterpretatîons în tîs book. None soud be attrîbuted to any persons or înstîtutes tat ave provîded assîstance to te autor.

Hardcover edîtîon irst pubîsed în 2012 by Ocanomîzu Sobo Co td

5-30-20 Hongo Bunkyoku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan

Paperback edîtîon irst pubîsed în 2013 by Arîcan Mînds

4 Ecceston Pace, Somerset West 7130, Sout Arîca

www.arîcanmînds.co.za

©2012 Sayaka Funada-Cassen

Hardback ïSBN 978-4-275-00952-4 C3030

Paperback ïSBN 978-1-920489-97-7

e-book ïSBN 978-1-920489-98-4

Text desîgn and typesettîng by COMPRESS.ds www.compressds.com

Prînted în Sout Arîca by Capîtî Prîntîng

Preace

îst o ïustratîons îst o Acronyms and Abbrevîatîons

Contents

ïntroductîon Seekîng te Orîgîns o Unîty and Dîvîsîon

Capter 1. Emergence o “Mozambîque” and Socîa Canges under Coonîa Rue

Capter 2. Caracterîstîcs o Maúa and te Process o Coonîsatîon

Capter 3. Mozambîque Beore te îberatîon Strugge

Capter 4. Word Poîtîcs rom 1960 to 1975 and Mozambîque’s îberatîon Strugge

Capter 5. Maúa Cîrcumscrîptîon durîng te îberatîon Strugge

Concusîon From te îberatîon Strugge to Post-îndependence Armed Conlîct

Bîbîograpy Acknowedgements About te Autor About te Transator

ïndex o Organîsatîons and ïnstîtutîons ïndex o Peope and Etnîc Groups ïndex o Pace Names

v

vîî îx

1

57

97

137

203

287

375

395

416 418 418

419 425 430

“he peace as arrîved, but we stî don’t know were tîs war came rom.”

“We aven’t been tod wy tîs war came to us. ï bot sîdes were a Mozambîcans, we need to te te young peope te trut în order not to contînue.”

“he trut îs paînu, but ît’s necessary.”

“We want to orget, but we need to make sure our cîdren understand tat tere was a war în our country and many peope dîed.”

(Extracts rom întervîews wît Makuwa women în Cabo Degado Provînce, Mozambîque, în August 2011)

Preace

ïn 1994 ï was about to eave Mozambîque ater avîng competed my work or te Unîted Natîons Operatîon în Mozambîque (ONUMOZ), wen ï was suddeny struck by serîous doubts. How coud ï eave tîs pace îke tîs? How dare ï speak as a UN unctîonary about peace and democratîsatîon to oca peope wen ï knew so îtte about teîr country? ï was asamed o my îgnorance and arrogance. Wîe ookîng down at te red eart rom te wîndow o te aeropane, ï remembered te sîence and sarp gaze o tose wo ï met tere. True, ï ad aways wanted to work or “peace” sînce my cîdood – ï was born on te 6t o August (te day te atomîc bomb was dropped on Hîrosîma). Yet, was te decîsîon to contînue workîng or te UN correct, îgnorîng, as ît woud, te unîqueness o oca communîtîes and te îndîvîduaîtîes o peope? Woud tat be te rîgt way to acîeve peace and democracy? he next tîme ï was ofered a job workîng or a UN mîssîon, my mînd was cear. ït was tîme to eave te bue UN cap beînd. ï soudn’t become a “mîssîon bîrd”. ï was resoved tat ï woud seek out te vast experîence îdden beînd peope’s sîences and teîr unspoken ear and woud et te word know about ît, owever many years ît mîgt take. Eîgteen years ave passed sînce ten. Fînay, ï am abe to ui te promîse ï made to myse. hîs book attempts to revea te orîgîns o war în Mozambîque, payîng attentîon to te structura process o varîous reatîons at înternatîona, regîona, domestîc, oca and persona eves. ïn te course o te researc wîc was conducted over a iteen- year-perîod sînce 1996, ï ave used a avaîabe prîmary sources o înormatîon, sourced arcîva researc în ive countrîes and întervîewed more tan 350 peope. ï inîsed wrîtîng te Japanese edîtîon în 2005. ït was not easy to decîde ow muc o te dîscussîon and overvîew o te sîtuatîon rom tat tîme to încude în te Engîs edîtîon pubîsed seven years ater. New books and artîces ave been pubîsed în te meantîme. Poîtîcs canges constanty. However, ï ad to draw a îne. hîs book mîgt attract severe crîtîcîsm or not relectîng te most recent înormatîon, but î tat appens, ï tougt, ï woud wrîte anoter book, a better one, takîng te crîtîcîsm and new indîngs înto account. he book ocuses on an area caed Maúa, not because ï beîeve Maúa represents te woe o Mozambîque as suc, but because îgîgtîng a specîic area and peope eps to understand te Mozambîcan îstory more deepy and compreensîvey. ïn any case, ît woud be împossîbe to study te experîence o a Mozambîcans. ï am not attemptîng to wrîte a îstory textbook o Mozambîque, or a gorîous îstory o te îberatîon strugge, but rater tryîng to i a gap în te descrîptîons o contemporary Mozambîcan îstory by devîng înto matters tat ave not been wrîtten about beore. Atoug my întentîon was aways to wrîte tîs book în bot Engîs and Portuguese, ï pubîsed ît în Japanese irst sînce tere were vîrtuay no Japanese academîc books on contemporary Arîcan îstory, et aone any on Portuguese-speakîng Arîca. hîs deayed

vi

he Oigins of tHe Wa in Mozambique

te book’s pubîcatîon în te anguages wît wîc many scoars and stakeoders are more amîîar. Transatîon îtse turned out to be a coossa task. My transators and edîtors ad a tremendous job, due maîny to te seer voume o te book (669 pages în Japanese). Moreover, în my Japanese book, ï quoted passages, orîgînay wrîtten în Engîs, Portuguese or Frenc but wîc ad aready been transated înto Japanese. For tîs book, ï ad to ind te orîgîna texts. Some were unobtaînabe în Japan and ad to be transated înto Engîs rom Japanese. Speîng was anoter eadace. Some pace and peope’s names were speed dîferenty, dependîng on reerences, înterpreters and scoars. For înstance, a Makuwa cîe “Mwaîa” îs aso speed as “Muaîa” and “Mwaîya”; and “sîpaîo” (an Arîcan poîceman) as “cîpaîo” and “sîpaî”. ïn most cases, ï ave adopted te speîng used ocay. he names o provînces, dîstrîcts and cîtîes are speed accordîng to te maps made în Mozambîque (e.g., Maúa and Moçambîque Dîstrîct). Wîdey accepted Engîs speîng, î any, îs prîorîtîsed (e.g., Makonde and Nyanja înstead o Maconde and Nîanja). Some words are not transated because ï ear te nuance may be ost în transatîon (e.g.assîmîado). Puras o Portuguese and Makuwa words are îndîcated by non-îtaîc “s” added to te end (e.g.capatazs and mwenes). Furtermore, common Engîs speîng îs used (“Swaîî” and “Makuwa”) rater tan înguîstîc speîng (“Kîswaîî” and “Emakuwa”) or Arîcan anguages. Many readers mîgt ask temseves wat a Japanese academîc coud ave to say about Mozambîque, especîay about suc a bîg topîc. O course, te îstory o Mozambîque beongs to te peope o Mozambîque. Yet, ï beîeve tat ît îs because ï am not a Mozambîcan tat ît was possîbe to tacke te controversîa îstory. ï ope tat tîs book wî prompt oter scoars to ook at te îstory o Mozambîque as part o a arger pîcture o word îstory and study ît troug te ens o te oca communîtîes and peope îvîng tere. he tîte o te Japanese edîtîon wasHîstory o Armed Lîberatîon Strugge în Mozambîque, te same as tat o my P.D. dîssertatîon. For te Engîs edîtîon, ï ave canged te tîte tote War în Mozambîquehe Orîgîns o în order to attract te attentîon o not ony tose învoved în Mozambîcan îssues but aso tose înterested în conlîct and peace. he pubîcatîon o te book was made possîbe by te Grant-în-Aîd or Pubîcatîon o Scîentîic Researc Resuts o te Japan Socîety or te Promotîon o Scîence.

Maps

îst o ïustratîons

Fîgure 1 Soutern Arîca xîî Fîgure 2 Mozambîque (by Regîon and Provînce) xîîî Fîgure 3 Nortern Mozambîque and te ocatîons o Maúa and Eratî xîv Fîgure 4 RENAMO-controed areas (as o 1992) 10 Fîgure 5 Dîstrîcts were FREïMO and RENAMO obtaîned more tan twîce as many as te opponent’s votes (1994) 14 Fîgure 6 Sîmpîied etnograpîc map o Mozambîque (20t century) 16 Fîgure 7 Progress o te îberatîon War by FREïMO (1966–1974) 33 Fîgure 8 Area o Maúa Cîrcumscrîptîon durîng te ate coonîa era sown on te current provînce o Nîassa map 38 Fîgure 9 1994 Natîona Assemby eectîon resut (Nîassa Provînce – by Dîstrîct) 39 Fîgure 10 Maúa Dîstrîct durîng te post-îndependence armed conlîct 42 Fîgure 11992Peacetcîrtatre1eserMoaaústDîagevîtntoevemoM Accord (untî 2000) 43 Fîgure 12 Portuguese “mapa cor-de-rosa” în Arîca în te ate 19t century 58 Fîgure 13 Areas o operatîon o Mozambîque concessîon companîes 61 Fîgure 14romteate18tectnruyottnîetuoredaranceOandîïneT te mîd-19t century 64 Fîgure 15ymrtonîotuorPeoCeseugAaînocessProteoatyrîmîputaocc în nortern Mozambîque 70 Fîgure 16 Mîîtary sîtuatîon o nortern Mozambîque durîng WWï (1916–1918) 71 Fîgure 17 Hîerarcy o coonîa admînîstratîon under RAU 76 Fîgure 18 “Scrambe or Mozambîque” by cotton companîes (1942) 80 Fîgure 19atîtaîbteoetnacoeonstronnîpuorgcîrnerTnaîsîtno Mozambîque (mîd-18t century) 101 Fîgure 20 Yao’s dîaspora, 1840–1880 104 Fîgure 21 Mîgratîon track (nîpîto) o te Ntepo Group 107 Fîgure 22 Mîgratîon track (nîpîto) o Makuwa-Xîrîma and Metto  (20t century) 110 Fîgure 23wooFrmoînsnîoatnîgnîraroPettuguesegovernmetndrunîg te “Coonîa Wars” 227 Fîgure 24 ïsamîc route în nortern Mozambîque 239 Fîgure 25 FREïMO’s sanctuarîes în soutern Arîca and înitratîon routes 243 Fîgure 26 Evoutîon o înitratîon and attacks o FREïMO în Nîassa Dîstrîct (Sep. 1964 – Oct. 1966) 247

viii

he Oigins of tHe Wa in Mozambique

Fîgure 27 Depoyment o te Portuguese Armed Forces în nortern Mozambîque (ocusîng on Maúa) (May 1964 – Jan. 1967) Fîgure 28 Depoyment o te Portuguese Armed Forces în nortern Mozambîque (ocusîng on Maúa) (May 1967 – Ju.1973) Fîgure 29 Evoutîon o înitratîon and attacks o FREïMO în Nîassa Dîstrîct (Oct. 1966 – Aug. 1968) Fîgure 30 Map o psycoogîca vunerabîîty drawn by te Portuguese Armed Forces (Mar. 1969) Fîgure 31 War sîtuatîon în Maúa (30 Sept. 1968 – 30 Mar. 1970) Fîgure 32 Famîy connectîon between Mwene Mwapua and Mwene Muea Fîgure 33 War sîtuatîon în Maúa (5 Apr. 1974 – 2 Ju.1974)

Graps and tabes

Grap 1

Grap 2 Grap 3 Grap 4 Grap 5 Grap 6 Grap 7 Grap 8 Grap 9

Tabe 1-1 Tabe 1-2

Tabe 2

Metropoe’scottonîmportsromtecoonîesandnon-Portuguese terrîtorîes (1926–1961) Cotton sîppîng voume în Mozambîque (by regîon) Cotton productîon în nortern Mozambîque Cotton productîon în Amaramba and Marrupa Cîrcumscrîptîon Number o cotton producers în Amaramba and Marrupa Cîrcumscrîptîon Mozambîcan mîne workers în Sout Arîca (1901–1973) Workers în Soutern Rodesîa (1930–1952) Orîgîns o mîne workers în Soutern Rodesîa cîtîes (1945) Mîgrant workers rom Mozambîque în Tanganyîka (1951–1963)

Mozambîque natîona eectîon resut (Assemby o te Repubîc) Mozambîquenatîonaeectîonresut(AssembyoteRepubîc eectîon – seats won by te provînce) PortugueseArmedForcedpersonneworeceîvedtraînîngwît te support o te US government (1963–1971)

Potograps

306

307

315

329 331 332 355

77 84 84 119

119 158 163 163 171

14

15

187

A potograps în tîs pubîcatîon, încudîng tose on te cover, by Sayaka Funada-Cassen uness oterwîse specîied.

îst o Acronyms and Abbrevîatîons

AAG Assocîação das Artes Gráicas (Prînters’ Assocîatîon – Mozambîque) AHM Arquîvo Hîstórîco de Moçambîque (Hîstorîca Arcîve o Mozambîque) AHMîîtar Arquîvo Hîstórîco Mîîtar (Mîîtary Hîstorîca Arcîve – Portuga) AHU Arquîvo Hîstórîco Utramarîno (Overseas Hîstorîca Arcîve – Portuga) AïM Agêncîa de ïnormação de Moçambîque (Mozambîque ïnormatîon Agency) ANC Arîcan Natîona Congress (Sout Arîca) BSAC Brîtîs Sout Arîcan Company CEA Centro de Estudos Arîcanos (Centre or Arîcan Studîes) CïO Centra ïnormatîon OI ce (Soutern Rodesîa) CONCP Conerêncîa das Organîzações Nacîonaîstas das Coónîas Portuguesas (Conerence o Natîonaîst Organîsatîons o Portuguese Coonîes) COREMO Comîté Revoucîonárîo de Moçambîque (Mozambîque Revoutîonary Commîttee) DGS Deegacîa Gera de Segurança (Genera Securîty Dîrectorate) DOï Departamento de Organîzação do ïnterîor (Department o ïnterîor Organîsatîon) FN Front de îbératîon Natîonae (Natîona îberatîon Front- Agerîa) FPM Forças Popuares de îbertação de Moçambîque (Peope’s Forces or te îberatîon o Mozambîque/FREïMO army) FPN Frente Patrîótîca de îbertação Nacîona (Natîona îberatîon Patrîotîc Front/Patrîotîc Natîona îberatîon Front) FREïMO Frente de îbertação de Moçambîque (Mozambîque îberatîon Front) GE Grupo Especîa (Specîa Group) GEP Grupo Especîa Paraquedîsta (Specîa Group o Paracutîsts) GUMO Grupo Unîdo de Moçambîque (Mozambîque Unîted Group/Unîted Group o Mozambîque) ïO ïnternatîona abour Organîsatîon ïSANï ïnspecção Superîor Admînîtratîva sobre Negócîos ïndígenas JDDA Junta de Deesa dos Dereîtos d’ Arîca (Councî or Deence o te Arîcan Rîgts) JEAC Junta de Exportação de Agodão Coonîa (Coonîa Cotton Export Board) KANU Kenya Arîcan Natîona Unîon MANC Mozambîque Arîcan Natîona Congress MANU Makonde Arîcan Natîona Unîon MANU Mozambîque Arîcan Natîona Unîon MCP Maawî Congress Party MFA Movîmento das Forças Armadas (Armed Forces Movement – Portuga) MNC Mouvement Natîona Congoaîs (Congoese Natîona Movement)

MNR Mozambîque Natîona Resîstance MPA Movîmento Popuar de îbertação de Angoa (Popuar Movement or te îberatîon o Angoa) MUD Movîmento Unîão Democrátîco (Unîted Democratîc Movement) NATO Nort Atantîc Treaty Organîzatîon NDP Natîona Democratîc Party (Soutern Rodesîa) NESAM Núceo dos Estudantes Arîcanos Secundárîos de Moçambîque (Nuceus o Arîcan Secondary Students o Mozambîque) OAU Organîsatîon or Arîcan Unîty OMM Organîzação das Mueres Moçambîcana (Mozambîque Women’s Organîsatîon/Organîsatîon o Mozambîcan Women) ONUMOZ Operação das Nações Unîdas em Moçambîque (Unîted Natîons Operatîons în Mozambîque) PAïGC Partîdo Arîcano da ïndependêncîa da Guîné e Cabo Verde (Arîcan Party or te ïndependence o Guînea and Cape Verde) PïDE Poícîa ïnternacîona e de Deesa do Estado (ïnternatîona and State Deence Poîce) RAU Reorma Admînîstratîva Utramarîna (Overseas Admînîstratîon Reorm) RENAMO Resîstêncîa Nacîona de Moçambîque (Mozambîque Natîona Resîstance: MNR) RF Rodesîan Front SAAVM Socîedade Agodoeîra Arîcana Vountárîa de Moçambîque (Vountary Arîcan Cotton Socîety o Mozambîque) SADF Sout Arîcan Deence Force SAN Socîedade Agodoeîra do Nîassa (Nîassa Cotton Socîety) SCCï Servîço de Centraîzação e Coordenação de ïnormações (ïnormatîon Centraîsatîon and Coordînatîon Servîce) SCCïM Servîço de Centraîzação e Coordenação de ïnormações de Moçambîque (ïnormatîon Centraîsatîon and Coordînatîon Servîce o Mozambîque) SRANC Soutern Rodesîa Arîcan Natîona Congress TANU Tanganyîka Arîcan Natîona Unîon TT ïnstîtuto dos Arquîvos Nacîonaîs: Torre do Tombo (Portuga) UDENAMOUnîão Democrátîca Nacîona de Moçambîque (Natîona Democratîc Unîon o Mozambîque) UEM Unîversîdade de Eduardo Mondane (Eduardo Mondane Unîversîty) UNAMï Unîão Nacîona Arîcana de Moçambîque ïndependente (Arîcan Natîona Unîon or Mozambîcan ïndependence/Natîona Arîcan Unîon o ïndependent Mozambîque) UNHCR Unîted Natîons Hîg Commîssîon or Reugees UPA Unîão das Popuações de Angoa (Unîon o te Peopes o Angoa) WNA Wîtwatersrand Natîve abour Assocîatîon ZANA Zîmbabwean Natîona îberatîon Army

(Some names corrected by te autor)

Harare ZIMBABWE

TANZANIA

Maputo Pretorîa SWAZILAND Mbabane Joannesburg SOUTH AFRICA Maseru LESOTHO Durban Indian Ocean

MALAWI

Nacaa

MOZAMBIQUE

Beîra

0

250

0

250

Lîlongwe

Huambo

South Atl antic Ocean

Cape Town

Fîgure 1 Southern Afrîca

ANGOLA

CONGO Brazzavîlle

D.R. CONGO

BOTSWANA

Wavîs Bay

Cabînda (ANGOLA) Luanda

Kînshasa

Dar es Salaam

L.Malawi

L.Tanganyika

Natîonal capîtal

Gaborone

Raîroads

Wîndhoek

500 mîes

500 km

ZAMBIA Lusaka

NAMIBIA

xi

KENYA

N

Cîment, 1997:vîî.