The History (short) and Fundamentals (shorter) of Sea Floor ...

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Description

• cours - matière potentielle : wwi

The History (short) and Fundamentals (shorter) of Sea Floor Mapping Techniques Mark Holmes Univ. of Washington Mimi D'Iorio NOAA Monterey

• sounding device of robert hooke
• pdr records into physiographic maps
• denote time of outgoing pulse
• bathymetry map of central puget
• sea floor mapping techniques

Sujets

• Holmes
• Sounding
• Central
• Record
• Mapping
• Physical geography

Informations

• Publié par: phawyir
• Nombre de lectures: 13
• Langue: English

Extrait

From EU Model to Policy? The external promotion of regional
integration


Mary Farrell
Senior Research Fellow, Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche International









1From EU Model to Policy? The external promotion of regional integration

Introduction
The European Union has evolved since 1957 into a form of regional integration that
perhaps was not even imagined by the European leaders that signed the Treaty of Rome.
A political and economic community has been created, with a governance model that is
without parallel anywhere else in the world. There is a European legal order that was
constructed upon the laws of the founding treaty, and enhanced by the amendments
agreed in subsequent treaties, buttressed by the national legal institutions and the
European Court of Justice (ECJ). The influential role that the ECJ decisions have played
in pushing regional integration processes forward has led some analysts to highlight the
very political nature of the community’s supreme legal organ (Alter, 1996; Burley and
Mattli, 1993).

Within Europe, law and politics have interacted over the decades in the formulation and
implementation of an ever-expanding portfolio of internal policies and programmes that
contribute either directly or indirectly to a deepening of regional integration –
competition and industrial policy, regional policy (in the Structural and Cohesion Funds),
agriculture and fisheries, social and environmental, justice and home affairs, internal
market liberalisation and the single currency. This is a representative, rather than
conclusive, list of policy areas, and for most policy areas there is a portfolio of policy
1initiatives rather than one single encompassing policy.

Since the 1990s, EU external relations policy includes support for and promotion of
regional integration and cooperation in other parts of the world. A series of regional
strategy papers produced by the European Commission set down the framework for
2cooperation between the EU and other regions. In the Cotonou Agreement between the

1 For a detailed account of the different EU policy areas, see H. Wallace and W. Wallace, Policy-Making in
the European Union, Oxford University Press.
2 So far, seven strategy papers have been issued, covering regional cooperation with the Andean
Community, Asia, the Balkans, Central America, the Euro-Mediterranean region, Latin America, and
Mercosur; two other regional strategy papers, covering Tacis Regional Cooperation, and Nuclear Safety
were released.
2EU and the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries, there is a strong emphasis placed
upon regional cooperation and integration. Since 2000, the official rhetoric around the
Agreement and in the subsequent meetings between high-level European Commission
officials and African delegations has reiterated the European intention to support regional
integration. In April 2005, Peter Mandelson, the European Commissioner responsible for
trade, spoke to the EU-ACP Joint Parliamentary Assembly meeting in Bamako about the
significance of regional integration in EU external relations, and particularly with respect
to the African countries. Commissioner Mandelson added that ‘regional integration, if
implemented properly, will build markets where economies of scale, return on
investment, and enhanced domestic competition become really meaningful and stimulate
3economic growth and employment’.

Growing interest in regional integration in different parts of the world saw renewed
attempts by countries in Asia, Latin America, and Africa to develop new forms of
cooperation with neighbouring countries and, in some cases, to attempt to re-invigorate
existing arrangements. The EU model has inspired many schemes of regional integration,
4and the question of exporting the European model is an important one. The issue of
exportability raises a number of pertinent questions that challenge both the nature and
capacity of the EU external relations policy, and the notion of regional integration in
international relations.

Clearly, the exportability of the EU model can be questioned on a number of grounds. As
experience already shows, many countries have devised regionally-distinctive modes of
cooperation. In Asia, there are a number of regional organisations with different
objectives and concerns, variously addressing economic, security and trade issues. No
consensus exists among the Asian countries on the primacy of any one organisation, nor
on the relevant scope of activities or the geographic coverage of the membership

3 See European Union web-site, http://www.europa-eu-int, accessed on 2 August 2005.
4 It should be noted that the intention is not to suggest that all other forms of regional integration have been
shaped by reference to the EU blueprint – but it can be recognised that the EU has served as an existing
case-study and at times as a counter-example of what countries do not want to create. In practice, there are
diverse forms of regional cooperation and integrative arrangements across the world – for a contemporary
overview, see M. Farrell, B. Hettne (2005) Global Politics of Regionalism, Pluto Press.
3(Camilleri, 2003). In Africa, regional organisations extend their geographic coverage
across virtually the entire continent and many countries hold membership in several
regional organisations. Many of the African regional organisations began in the 1990s,
though the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) dates back to
1974. All the regional organisations in Africa had, and continue to have the objective of
creating some form of economic integration, while the African Union has extended the
list of objectives to include the promotion of peace, security and stability across the
continent (UNECA, 2004).

This paper will address certain issues around the exportability of the European Union
approach to regional integration, by examining three separate yet interlinked areas. It is
not the intention here to consider the feasibility or otherwise of groups of countries trying
to adopt a model of integration based upon the system the European political elites have
constructed over almost half a century. Rather, the paper seeks to make some general
observations about the European approach to regional integration, and it does so by
looking at one instance of internal integration in the form of the creation of the Single
Market. The second area under consideration is the ‘demand’ from regional groupings in
search of a workable set of formal, cooperative arrangements for economic integration.
This section of the paper will use the example of the African countries, and assesses the
potential and actual impact of the Economic Partnership Agreements currently being
negotiated between the European Commission and groups of countries within Africa. The
third area of the paper considers European regional integration in the broader context of
the global order, and the competitive regulatory systems that currently dominate
international politics.

If we are to consider the possibility of exporting the European model of regional
integration, then clearly we must reflect upon the relevance of this particular approach for
countries with their own socio-economic objectives, levels of development, security and
stability concerns, and often diverging political preferences among the countries seeking
to initiate and deepen regional cooperative arrangements. Some degree of consensus on
goals and objectives must exist as a basis for agreeing collective action among
4participating countries. It is, however, only a starting point to a process that is open-
ended, multi-dimensional, and complex. Countries do have options and alternatives in
deciding how to conduct their international relations and foreign policies – even if the
range of options are shaped, or even limited, by the circumstances of the individual
country, and by its political and strategic capabilities. Similarly, there are alternative
courses of action that can be taken in pursuit of such domestic goals as economic
development, growth, monetary stability, wealth creation, or social justice. In this regard,
regional integration presents one possible strategic option by which countries can work
collectively in the pursuit of domestic goals and international policy preferences. But
regional governance is also one alternative among many in the international policy space,
and as such must compete with global governance and even with the unilateralism of the
world’s sole superpower. The European Union policy of promoting regional integration
in other parts of the world, most notably in Africa, has therefore to be placed in this
multi-level frame of reference – the political and socio-economic conditions in the ‘other
region’ and alternative governance arrangements that can affect the willingness or
capacity of countries to engage in regional integration, or the capacity of the EU as an
international actor to influence the policy choices made by other countries.

How accurate and realistic is it to speak about the export of the EU model of r