Lessons and Activities for 11th Grade Teachers to accompany We Are ...

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A “CALIFORNIA STORIES” PROJECT OF THE CALIFORNIA COUNCIL FOR THE HUMANITIES 1 Lessons and Activities for 11th Grade Teachers to accompany We Are California: Stories of Immigration and Change A California Stories Project of the California Council for the Humanities

• effects on the depopulation of rural regions and on political movements
• california website
• migration
• experiences
• immigration
• groups
• people
• student
• 3 www
• www
• students

Sujets

• Process
• Exposé
• 14678 Pinney
• Greenberg
• Norris
• Analysis

Informations

• Publié par: kepap
• Nombre de lectures: 195
• Langue: English

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Prag 3/10/07 4:02 pm Page 68
Auxilia and Gymnasia: A Sicilian Model
of Roman Imperialism*
jonathan r. w. prag
bºsi lesà s6m Jaqvgdomíxm jasáktrim Ïpì 3nÌjomsa 4seri s◊m Rijek◊m
eŸqooΩmsxm Ïm pârim, ˙ dotkijòy aŸsoi îy Ïpamérsg pókeloy . . .
After the defeat of the Carthaginians, when the Sicilians had flourished in every way for
sixty years, the slave war rose against them . . .
(Diod. Sic. 34/35.2.1)
Prima omnium, id quod ornamentum imperii est, provincia est appellata. Prima docuit
maiores nostros quam praeclarum esset exteris gentibus imperare.
[Sicily] was the first of all to be entitled a province, the first such jewel in our empire. She
first taught our ancesters how splendid it might be to rule foreign peoples.
(Cic., Ver. 2.2)
introduction
A study of military manpower in Republican Sicily may not appear the most obvious way
to reassess Roman imperialism and its socio-cultural consequences. It offers, however,
both the prospect of a reappraisal of Republican imperialism through an examination of
the Roman use of local manpower, and, in the light of that, a chance to reconsider the
development of Rome’s first province, the island of Sicily, containing within it the impor-
1tant Hellenistic kingdom of Hieron II of Syracuse.
Edouard Will once observed that, ‘Il subsiste dans les interstices et sur les marges des
grands États territoriaux tout un monde politique qui n’aspire qu’à continuer à vivre selon
les normes anciennes, et y réussit d’ailleurs dans une large mesure.’ In a footnote, he added
that it is precisely in the study of these marginal areas that we might hope to gain a greater
2understanding of the Hellenistic world. In a recent study of Hellenistic warfare, John Ma
* It is a pleasure to thank Carmine Ampolo, Filippo Battistoni, Mac Bell, Anna Briguglio, Lorenzo Campagna,
Suzanne Frey-Kupper, Sandra Péré-Noguès, Antonino Pinzone, Vincenzo La Rosa, and Roger Wilson for copies of
various of the works employed, as well as in many cases discussion of the contents. The paper owes a great deal to
Michael Crawford, who oversaw its original development (he is not responsible for its many defects). I received
much appreciated encouragement from Carmine Ampolo and the famiglia Rallo of the Impresa Donnafugata
(Marsala) at a key moment. In particular I wish to thank Getzl Cohen and the Department of Classics at the
University of Cincinnati for their generous award of a Tytus Scholarship and their kind hospitality, through which
I was able to complete much of the work in the splendid Blegen Library.
1 The inspiration for both strands comes from Fergus Millar, who also first suggested the topic of Sicily to me.
‘The history of the later Greek city under Roman rule in the West [. . .] and in Sicily is a major historical topic [. . .].
It need only be stressed, as regards the complex relations of the wider Greek world to Rome in the Hellenistic
period, that this area, though certainly marginal, was never unknown or irrelevant’ (F. Millar, ‘The Greek city in
the Roman period’, in M. H. Hansen (ed.), The Ancient Greek City-State (1993), 232–60, at 233). Equally, studying
the role of auxilia externa under the Republic is important ‘to understand what being under Roman power meant’
(F. Millar, ‘The last century of the Republic. Whose history?’, JRS 85 (1995), 236–43, at 242).
2 E. Will, ‘La territoire, la ville et la poliorcétique grecque’, Revue Historique 253 (1975), 297–318, at 316 and
n. 1.
JRS 97 (2007), pp. 68–100. © World Copyright Reserved.
Exclusive Licence to Publish: The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies 2007Prag 3/10/07 4:02 pm Page 69
69AUXILIA and GYMNASIA: a sicilian model of roman imperialism
has pursued this idea to elucidate the ‘frequency across the Hellenistic world of local
military activities’. He observes that ‘empires tolerated local defence forces’ and even
‘periodically drew on local forces for their own purposes’. In passing, he notes that ‘the
3Roman Republic continued the practice’. In what follows, I argue that Roman rule in
Sicily entailed the continuity, indeed the encouragement of traditional norms, in the form
of local military activities and their institutional concomitants, in particular the
gymnasion. In doing so, I shall consider the nature of Sicily under the Republic, the Roman
use of auxilia externa in the middle/late Republic, and the relevance of the gymnasion to
military activity. Roman rule in Sicily was fashioned upon, or by, the world which the
Romans encountered there. A development which might traditionally be characterized
as a lack of ‘Romanization’ on the island — or, vice versa, as the continuity of a
vital Hellenistic civic culture — is, perhaps paradoxically, a direct consequence of Roman
rule.
Historiographically, Sicily is the poor relation amongst the Hellenistic kingdoms. The
tyrants of the fourth century occupy an uneasy position for historians of the Greek world,
as they did for the Greeks themselves. Agathocles, first of the Western dynasts to claim the
title of basileus, is marginalized not least because of the loss, from 302 b.c. onwards, of the
continuous account in our only surviving source for the Western Greeks, Diodorus Siculus.
The loss of Western Greek historiography is a major reason for Sicily’s minor role in post-
Classical history; but no less important is the rise of Rome and Sicily’s early subordination
to the new imperial power. Sicily only appears in text-books on the Hellenistic world
4within asides on Westerners. Hellenistic Sicily has, however, been the subject of a recent
5revival of interest; the problem, if that is the right word, lies in the disjunction between
the study of Hellenistic Sicily and Roman Sicily.
The study of Roman Sicily is, above all, the study of Ciceronian Sicily, meaning Verres’
6Sicily. The two great slave wars of the later second century b.c. and Cicero’s devastating
critique of Caius Verres’ governorship in 73–71 b.c. encourage a negative assessment of the
island under Roman rule. The almost total silence of the literary sources on Sicily after the
Roman Civil Wars serves to confirm the presumption of torpidity and stagnation under the
Empire. Marxist interpretations of the island’s Roman history have been particularly suc-
7cessful, and the story is often written from a Romanocentric perspective. It is instead in
the non-literary sources, the archaeology, epigraphy, and numismatics of the island, that
a rather different picture, with fewer discontinuities, needs to be sought. Studies of this
sort have increasingly emphasized the Hellenistic aspects of Republican Sicily, and it is
3 J. Ma, ‘Fighting poleis of the Hellenistic world’, in H. van Wees (ed.), War and Violence in Ancient Greece
(2000), 337–76, at 338 and 358–9. Similar remarks on the Roman Empire in P. A. Brunt, ‘Did Imperial Rome disarm
her subjects?’, Phoenix 29 (1975), 260–70.
4 e.g., A. Erskine (ed.), A Companion to the Hellenistic World (2003).
5 e.g., G. de Sensi Sestito, Gerone II (1977); S. N. Consolo Langher, Agatocle (2000); N. Bonacasa, L. Braccesi and
E. de Miro (eds), La Sicilia dei due Dionisî (2002); B. Smarczyk, Timoleon und die Neugründung von Syrakus (2003);
M. Caccamo Caltabiano, L. Campagna and A. Pinzone (eds), Nuove prospettive della ricerca sulla Sicilia del III sec.
a.C. (2004); C. Lehmler, Syrakus unter Agathokles und Hieron II (2005).
6 See now S. Pittia and J. Dubouloz (eds), La Sicile de Cicéron, lectures des Verrines (2007).
7 For a recent survey of the historiography of Republican Sicily, see L. Campagna, ‘La Sicilia di età repubblicana
nella storiografia degli ultimi cinquant’anni’, Ostraka 12 (2003), 7–31. A classic marxist interpretation in M. Mazza,
‘Terra e lavoratori nella Sicilia tardorepubblicana’, in A. Giardina and A. Schiavone (eds), Società romana e pro-
duzione schiavistica (1981), I, 19–49; and a long-term Romano centric view in E. Gabba, ‘La Sicilia romana’, in
M. H. Crawford (ed.), L’impero romano e le strutture economiche e sociale delle province (1986), 71–85. For
Imperial Sicily (without the torpor), see above all R. J. A. Wilson, Sicily under the Roman Empire (1990).Prag 3/10/07 4:02 pm Page 70
70 jonathan r. w. prag
with this firmly in mind that I wish to concentrate attention on the ways in which the
8Romans maintained control of the island.
There are two main reasons to focus on military manpower in Sicily. In the first place
Roman soldiers, and no less importantly auxiliaries in the service of Rome, are an obvious
and recognized mechanism for cultural interaction. The possibilities have been extensively
9 studied for the Imperial period, both in the Eastern and Western parts of the Empire. With
the partial exceptions of Spain and North Africa however, the subject has scarcely been
10considered for the Republic. Secondly, military presence is the most obvious face of
imperialism. Important studies of Spain and the Greek East have greatly enhanced our
understanding of the development of mid-Republican imperialism from more general
models. Sicily, a ‘Greek’ province in the West, and the first provincia, offers real potential
11to develop these analyses further.
‘After the Hannibalic war, Rome adopted a new mode of control, magistrates and
12standing armies, for the overseas territories which she acquired.’ Muc