Crystallization kinetics in antimony and tellurium alloys used for phase change recording [Elektronische Ressource] / vorgelegt von Johannes Andreas Kalb
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English

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Crystallization kinetics in antimony and tellurium alloys used for phase change recording [Elektronische Ressource] / vorgelegt von Johannes Andreas Kalb

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Crystallization kineticsin antimony and tellurium alloysused for phase change recordingVon der Fakulta¨t fu¨rMathematik, Informatik und Naturwissenschaftender Rheinisch-Westfa¨lischen Technischen Hochschule Aachenzur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktorsder Naturwissenschaften genehmigte Dissertationvorgelegt vonDiplom-Physiker Johannes Andreas Kalbaus NeussBerichter: Universita¨tsprofessor Dr. Matthias WuttigUniversitatsprofessor Dr. Frans Spaepen¨Tag der mundlichen Prufung: 10. Februar 2006¨ ¨Diese Dissertation ist auf den Internetseitender Hochschulbibliothek online verfu¨gbar.iiAbstractModern computers usually employ several types of data storage devices. Most fre-quently, magnetic and optical storage media are used. The latter have become of greatimportancethroughoutthelastdecade: nowadaysasignificantamountofdataisstoredon compact discs (CDs) and digital versatile discs (DVDs). A few years ago, rewritableCDs and DVDs have become commercially available and are widely used these days.Inthesestoragemedia, athinfilmofanantimony(Sb)ortellurium(Te)alloyislocallyand reversibly switched by laser heating between the amorphous and the crystallinestate. These states can be distinguished optically by their difference in reflectivity.Due to the reversibility of the phase transformation, rewritable CDs and DVDs arealso called phase change media. The corresponding Sb and Te alloys are frequentlytermed phase change materials.

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Publié par
Publié le 01 janvier 2006
Nombre de lectures 8
Langue English
Poids de l'ouvrage 12 Mo

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Crystallization kinetics
in antimony and tellurium alloys
used for phase change recording
Von der Fakulta¨t fu¨r
Mathematik, Informatik und Naturwissenschaften
der Rheinisch-Westfa¨lischen Technischen Hochschule Aachen
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Doktors
der Naturwissenschaften genehmigte Dissertation
vorgelegt von
Diplom-Physiker Johannes Andreas Kalb
aus Neuss
Berichter: Universita¨tsprofessor Dr. Matthias Wuttig
Universitatsprofessor Dr. Frans Spaepen¨
Tag der mundlichen Prufung: 10. Februar 2006¨ ¨
Diese Dissertation ist auf den Internetseiten
der Hochschulbibliothek online verfu¨gbar.iiAbstract
Modern computers usually employ several types of data storage devices. Most fre-
quently, magnetic and optical storage media are used. The latter have become of great
importancethroughoutthelastdecade: nowadaysasignificantamountofdataisstored
on compact discs (CDs) and digital versatile discs (DVDs). A few years ago, rewritable
CDs and DVDs have become commercially available and are widely used these days.
Inthesestoragemedia, athinfilmofanantimony(Sb)ortellurium(Te)alloyislocally
and reversibly switched by laser heating between the amorphous and the crystalline
state. These states can be distinguished optically by their difference in reflectivity.
Due to the reversibility of the phase transformation, rewritable CDs and DVDs are
also called phase change media. The corresponding Sb and Te alloys are frequently
termed phase change materials.
Recently,phasechangematerialshavealsoshownhighpotentialforthedevelopment
of non-volatile electronic phase change random access memories. In this application,
a current pulse provides the heat that is necessary to induce the phase transformation
between the amorphous and the crystalline state, which can be distinguished by their
difference in electrical conductivity. First prototypes of this memory type are currently
developed by the industry and demonstrate fast non-volatile data storage. There are
good prospects that these memories finally replace current data storage devices in
modern computers. In order to accomplish this, however, it is highly necessary to
understandthephasetransformationbetweentheamorphousandthecrystallinephase
for Sb and Te alloys. This thesis makes a contribution to a fundamental understanding
of the crystallization kinetics of amorphous and liquid phase change materials. The
resultsshouldhelptooptimizebothopticalandelectronicphasechangemediainterms
of data transfer rates and scalability.
iiiiv ABSTRACT
In one project of this study, ex situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) in combi-
nation with a high-precision furnace was identified as a powerful and accurate tool
to determine isothermal crystallization parameters in thin films as a function of time
and temperature. This method was employed for a systematic study of crystalliza-
tion kinetics in sputtered amorphous Ag In Sb Te (hereafter: AgIn-Sb Te),0.055 0.065 0.59 0.29 2
Ge Sb Te , Ge Sb Te , and Ge Sb Te thin films used for phase change recording.4 1 5 2 2 5 1 2 4
The temperature dependence of the crystal nucleation rate and the crystal growth
velocity, which are the two fundamental quantities involved in crystallization, were de-
termined between around 90 and 190 by direct observation of crystals. Using these
quantities, the critical work for crystalline cluster formation could be calculated. The
time dependence of the nucleation rate was also investigated. The knowledge of these
crystallization parameters provides the basis to model crystallization and therefore to
optimize data transfer rates.
Ex situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to study the crystal
morphologyinthesealloys. Tiltingofplanviewsamplesrevealedthateachcrystallized
growth formation is a bent single crystal. Cross-sectional TEM showed that only
heterogeneous (not homogeneous) crystal nucleation occurs. These findings help to
interpret the nucleation parameters obtained from the experiment mentioned above.
Ingeneral, allalloysexhibitedsimilarcrystalgrowthcharacteristics, butthecrystal
nucleation behavior of AgIn-Sb Te differed remarkably from that of the GeSbTe alloys.2
These observations provide an explanation for the different re-crystallization mecha-
nisms observed for these materials under operating conditions. They also demonstrate
that in particular the crystal nucleation rate is of great importance to control crystal-
lization kinetics and therefore data transfer rates in phase change media.
Inasecondproject,sputteredamorphousfilmsofthecompositionsmentionedabove
were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Upon continuous heating, a
heat release due to structural relaxation of the amorphous phase between 0.5 and
1.0kJ/mol was observed. This value depends on the thermal history of the sample.
Pre-annealingoftheamorphousphaserevealedtheglasstransitiontemperaturewithin
10K of the crystallization temperature upon continuous heating at 40K/min. The
knowledge of the glass transition temperature is of fundamental importance to under-
stand and interpret crystal nucleation rates and crystal growth velocities.
?v
In a third project, droplets of molten alloys of composition Ge Sb , AgIn-Sb Te,12 88 2
Ge Sb Te andGe Sb Te , surroundedbyamoltendehydratedB O flux, wereunder-4 1 5 2 2 5 2 3
cooled to 40–80K below their liquidus temperature in a differential thermal analyzer
(DTA). The crystal-melt interfacial energy, which is the most important parameter for
the calculation of the crystal nucleation rate, was determined from the nucleation tem-
perature using the classical nucleation theory. This gave values of around 0.20 times
the heat of fusion per atom in the interface for all alloys. This value should be a lower
limit since it was not established that nucleation was homogeneous in the experiments.
The steady-state nucleation rate was calculated between the liquidus and glass transi-
tiontemperatureandwashigherfortheGeSbTealloysthanfortheSb-richalloys. This
explains the different crystallization behavior of these materials under operating condi-
tions. Nevertheless, the nucleation rates appear too high to allow amorphization under
operating conditions for the highest achievable cooling rates. Therefore, in conclusion,
it is the presence of an incubation time for nucleation that makes amorphization and
therefore phase change recording possible in both optical and electronic phase change
media.vi ABSTRACTKurzfassung
¨Ubersetzung des englischen Originaltitels: Kristallisationskinetik in Antimon-
undTellur-Verbindungen,diezurDatenspeicherunginPhasenwechselmedieneingesetzt
werden.
In modernen Computern werden ublicherweise verschiedene Arten von Datenspei-¨
chern eingesetzt. Sehr haufig werden magnetische und optische Speichermedien be-¨
nutzt. Letztere haben innerhalb des vergangenen Jahrzehnts an großer Bedeutung
gewonnen: Heute wird ein Großteil der anfallenden Datenmenge auf CDs (englisch:
compact disks) und DVDs (englisch: digital versatile disks) gespeichert. Seit eini-
gen Jahren sind auch wiederbeschreibbare CDs und DVDs kommerziell erhaltlich und¨
sind heutzutage weit verbreitet. In diesen Datenspeichern wird ein dunner Film einer¨
Antimon- oder Tellur-Verbindung (Abk.: Sb- oder Te-Verbindung) durch Laser-Heizen
lokal und reversibelzwischen dem amorphen und kristallinenZustandhin- und zuru¨ck-
geschaltet. Diese Zustande konnen aufgrund ihrer verschiedenen Reflektivitatskoeffi-¨ ¨ ¨
zientenoptischunterschiedenwerden. WegenderUmkehrbarkeitdesPhasenubergangs¨
werden wiederbeschreibbare CDs und DVDs auch Phasenwechselmedien genannt. Die
entsprechenden Sb- und Te-Verbindungen werden h¨aufig als Phasenwechselmaterialien
bezeichnet.
Kurzlich haben Phasenwechselmaterialien auch hohes Potenzial zur Entwicklung¨
nicht flu¨chtiger elektronischer Datenspeicher mit wahlfreiem Zugriff (englisch: non-
volatile electronic phase change random access memories) gezeigt. In dieser Anwen-
dung wird die Joulsche Wa¨rme, die zur Phasentransformation zwischen dem amorphen
und kristallinen Zustand benotigt wird, durch einen Strompuls lokal in das Material¨
eingekoppelt. DiebeidenZustandeunterscheidensichstarkdurchihreelektrischeLeit-¨
fa¨higkeit und ko¨nnen daher auf diese Art ausgelesen werden. Erste Prototypen dieses
viiviii KURZFASSUNG
Speichertyps werden derzeit industriell entwickelt und demonstrieren schnelle nicht
fluchtige Datenspeicherung. Die Aussichten, dass dieser Speichertyp in der Zukunft¨
g¨angige Datenspeicher in modernen Computern ersetzt, sind sehr gut. Um diesen
Schritt jedoch zu erreichen, ist es zwingend notwendig, die Phasentransformation zwi-
schen amorpher und kristalliner Phase in Sb- und Te-Verbindungen besser zu verste-
hen. Diese Doktorarbeit tragt zu einem grundlegenden Verstandnis der Kristallisa-¨ ¨
tionskinetik amorpher und flussiger Phasenwechselmaterialien bei. Die Ergebnisse sind¨
eine wichtige Hilfe fu¨r die Optimierung von Datenspeicherraten und der Skalierbarkeit
sowohl in optischen als auch in elektronischen Phasenwechselmedien.
In einem Projekt dieser Arbeit wurde Ex situ“–Rasterkraftmikroskopie in Kombi-

nationmiteinemHochprazisionsofenalseineleistungsfahigeundgenaueMethodeiden-¨ ¨
tifiziert, um is

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