Sport et travail
506 pages
Français

Vous pourrez modifier la taille du texte de cet ouvrage

Sport et travail , livre ebook

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506 pages
Français

Vous pourrez modifier la taille du texte de cet ouvrage

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Les relations entre le sport et le travail ont toujours été ambiguës. Alors qu'historiquement ces deux mondes apparaissent antinomiques, nous assistons à un rapprochement via la notion de performance (performance sportive, performance économique). Comprendre l'essor, mais aussi les limites de cette articulation complexe, tel est le pari difficile de cet ouvrage. Une réflexion sur l'utilisation des valeurs sportives dans l'entreprise, les conditions d'entrée sur le marché du travail sportif, le délicat problème de la reconversion, la montée en puissance du tourisme sportif...

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Publié par
Date de parution 01 juin 2010
Nombre de lectures 520
EAN13 9782296261280
Langue Français
Poids de l'ouvrage 2 Mo

Informations légales : prix de location à la page 0,1850€. Cette information est donnée uniquement à titre indicatif conformément à la législation en vigueur.

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Sport et travail
© L’Harmattan, 2010
5-7, rue de l’Ecole polytechnique, 75005 Paris

http://www. librairieharmattan.com
diffusion.harmattan@wanadoo.fr
harmattan1@wanadoo.fr

ISBN : 978-2-296-12370-0
EAN : 9782296123700


Fabrication numérique : Socprest, 2012
Sous la direction de
Claude Sobry


Sport et travail
General Introduction


Pr. Claude SOBRY, PhD
Christian DORVILLE, PhD


C ONTRIBUTIONS OF S OCIOLOGY AND E CONOMY ON C ONCEPTS IN EVOLUTION
During the last presidential elections, the candidates placed work at the centre of the debate; does this mean that after having envisaged the "end of work", our post industrialized societies now believes again in the "value of work". This current will to give back a "positive value" to work can be seen as an attempt to fill the void that the decline of religion and politics has created. The sociology of Work has long been the main matrix of modem society, the fruit itself of the industrialized society whose principal paradigm is based on the central value of work, considered to be the source of all production and progress. Today the crisis has highlighted the alienating face of work.
After having envisaged the « end of work », our industrialized societies now want to strengthen the « value of work ». But do we really understand the subject that we are dealing with ?
The word "work" is used very freely in our vocabulary. The term seems to cover a vast range of activities, as long as they are socially useful. Thus the verb "to work" is used in relation to the activity of a factory worker, an employee, an executive, but also for the child at school, for the artist painting, for the professional sportsmen "playing" football… These uses of the term raise a question, if the word can be used for all types of social activities, does "work" still have a precise meaning ? Due to its polysemy the notion of work is quite particular. It can be used in the simple sense of a daily activity or it can refer to a salaried activity as is the most common use today. This polysemy is such that certain anthropologists have questioned the relevance of the very notion of work to describe activities which vary from one society to another. J P Vernant thus distinguished different terms to distinguish work in ancient Greece. Ponos , meaning difficulty or hardship, for example, expresses the difficulty in doing work, i. e. the effort it involves. Indeed such difficult work was done by slaves. Heraclites said " War is the mother of everything ; it creates Gods, men and slaves ". It leads to the creation of categories of those who dominate, obliging others to work. This included all types of obligatory work, ranging from total slavery, to mitigated forms, servitude etc. In this sense, a citizen of the ancient Greek city did not consider the activity of managing the city as one of work.
From Antiquity to the middle of ges work was servile (its sole purpose was to support the dominant classes, citizens of Athens and Rome, the nobility and clergy of the middle age) and disliked : working meant not having time to spend on the upkeep of the city, wars, religion or intellectual affairs. During the middle ages the only positive views of work came from the monastic orders (arguing against the excesses of ecclesiastic wealth, the virtues of poverty and of work : through their suffering those who work are more sure to get to heaven than the idle rich) and those of corporations (by organizing trade, by giving prestige to the intelligence of manual work and above all by offering their members the collective construction of an immediate personal accomplishment, without reference to a future life). This is a far cry from the conception of work considered as a positive value in itself; a means to ensuring personal and collective happiness. The view concerning the rewards of the effort of work was to come later with the birth of the "bourgeoisie" (with shop-keepers and bankers moving towards the upper spheres of society).
Work was not a negative obligation, but something useful to society which made it possible to move up the social hierarchy and to enjoy the goods produced : wealth was the proof that one had been "chosen by God". By abolishing corporations, the French Revolution ensured the supremacy of this "bourgeois" vision of work : everyone was able to do the job which would give them their chance to be rich.
The unification of the notion of work in terms of time/money, to refer with the same word not only to the activity of a manual worker or a shoe maker but also to that of a novelist or a professional football player is in this respect a relatively recent phenomenon. Nevertheless, these activities are différent.
Remuneration is not the common point of all work (there exists, as has been previously shown, historical forms of work such as slavery or medieval servitude, which were not paid), in fact the common point is the aim of work: the transformation of nature in a way useful to man, that is to say with a view to the satisfaction of his needs.
This definition of work allows us not to confuse it with games or leisure, i. e. activities whose only purpose is the pleasure involved. In this way, for an ancient Greek, work is the affair of slaves or of the category of producers only. The man of action, the politician, the philosopher and the athlete do not work and their activity is considered all the more eminent since it is born of this necessity. According to Hannah Arendt, Aristotle’s distinction between the theoria (speculation), praxis (action) and poiesis (work, fabrication), work is the human activity closest to biological necessity, because of its purpose which is to satisfy our needs. The law of work is thus the indefinite reproduction of these objects and of these actions accomplished to produce them, the monotonous repetition of the production-consumption cycle.
The ofiten difficult nature of work reinforces the negative idea that one can have of it. Is not the activity of transforming nature the resuit of a struggle between mankind and the world ? In genesis we read " You will earn your bread from your effort and sweat ", an imperative linked to the original sin. Does not work thus seem as the curse of the human condition ? It is note worthy that the etymology of the word bares the trace of this vision of work: trepalium meant, in lower Latin, an instrument of torture with three shakes.
The word French word meaning work arrived in the language towards the XI th century to "define the State of one who suffers, who is tormented, an unpleasant activity". When a woman is giving birth do we not say that she is in "labour" ? It was only in the XV th century that the term began to be used to designate its current meaning.
Even though work has something of an anthropological nature, a sort of essence which has always existed, there are, nevertheless historically determined forms. In this way, it took on a particular form during the XVIII th century, that of salaried work. Numerous elements which today are part of our conception of work did not exist before the XVIII th century. Our current idea of work makes work a very complex object made up of different layers laid down like sediment over three periods:
Salaried work originated with the economy and the emergence of the individual. It constituted, even if it was not invented for that, a wonderful solution to the problems of the foundation and the upkeep of public order. It was at that time that the members of our societies, which before this had a very strong hierarchy, were transformed into individuals: the economy and work became the means to hold these individuals together in the most solid way possible. The economy is in fact, the science which dictates the nature of the links which hold people together. But Adam Smith did not glorify work. It appeared as a simple factor of production and this economist distinguished productive work, which produced material goods, a source of merchandising exchange value, from that which did not, which was known as unproductive work.
The second period was at the beginning of the XIX th century, when in French and German philosophical and political texts work suddenly appeared as a Creative liberty and as the power of man to transform the world. It began to take on a moral density becoming a"value". At that time the distinction was made between qualified work, necessitating learning, which helped a person construct a social identity, and manual work, the physical and intellectual capacities of the worker at the service of a minority of the population. This conception was at its height in the writings of Hegel and of course Marx. Paradoxically, it was at the time that the worst working conditions came into being that the myth was created of work as the height of human activity. Marx, but also Proudhon, Fourier condemn the working conditions, but not work itself : the latter remained essential for the individual to flourish as long as it was chosen and diversified. Marx saw the future of society in the form of work. He is known to have said that as soon as he would be free, work would be his first vital need. At that time a sort of fixation of the utopian energies occurred on the spheres of work and production. From this sprung Marx’s criticism of the aliénation of work, denouncing not only economical exploitation, whereby the worker did not receive a fair share of the wealth created by his efforts (what Marx called the overwork), but more profoundly, a

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