Citizenship Law in Africa: A Comparative Study (3rd edition)

Bronwyn Manby

Description

Few African countries provide for an explicit right to a nationality. Laws and practices governing citizenship effectively leave hundreds of thousands of people in Africa without a country. These stateless Africans can neither vote nor stand for office; they cannot enrol their children in school, travel freely, or own property; they cannot work for the government; they are exposed to human rights abuses. Statelessness exacerbates and underlies tensions in many regions of the continent. Citizenship Law in Africa, a comparative study by two programs of the Open Society Foundations, describes the often arbitrary, discriminatory, and contradictory citizenship laws that exist from state to state and recommends ways that African countries can bring their citizenship laws in line with international rights norms. The report covers topics such as citizenship by descent, citizenship by naturalisation, gender discrimination in citizenship law, dual citizenship, and the right to identity documents and passports. It is essential reading for policymakers, attorneys, and activists.This third edition is a comprehensive revision of the original text, which is also updated to reflect developments at national and continental levels. The original tables presenting comparative analysis of all the continent’s nationality laws have been improved, and new tables added on additional aspects of the law.  Since the second edition was published in 2010, South Sudan has become independent and adopted its own nationality law, while there have been revisions to the laws in Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Namibia, Niger, Senegal, Seychelles, South Africa, Sudan, Tunisia and Zimbabwe.  The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child have developed important new normative guidance.

Sujets

• Droit
• juridique

Informations

• Publié par: African Minds
• Date de parution: 25 janvier 2016
• Nombre de lectures: 0
• EAN13: 9781928331087
• Langue: English
• Poids de l'ouvrage: 1 Mo

Extrait

3RD EDITION LAW IN C TIZENSHIP AFRICA

Citizenship Law in Africa A Comparative Study

By Bronwen Manby

Publîshed by Arîcan Mînds on behal o Open Socîety Foundatîons 224 West 57th Street New York, NY 10019 www.opensocîetyoundatîons.org Arîcan Mînds 4 Eccleston Place, Somerset West, 7130, Cape Town, South Arîca îno@arîcanmînds.org.za www.arîcanmînds.org.za 2016 All contents o thîs document, unless specîfied otherwîse, are lîcensed under a Creatîve Commons Attrîbutîon Non-Commercîal 4.0 Internatîonal Lîcence ISBNs 978-1-928331-08-7 Prînt 978-1-928331-12-4 e-Book 978-1-928331-13-1 e-Pub Copîes o thîs book are avaîlable or ree download at www.arîcanmînds.org.za ORDERS To order prînted copîes rom Arîca, please contact: Arîcan Mînds Emaîl: îno@arîcanmînds.org.za To order prînted copîes rom outsîde Arîca, please contact: Arîcan Books Collectîve PO Box 721, Oxord OX1 9EN, UK Emaîl: orders@arîcanbookscollectîve.com

Contents

Preface to the third edition Disclaimer Abbreviations DeInitions

Summary and recommendations The rîght to a natîonalîty în Arîcan laws Racîal, ethnîc and relîgîous dîscrîmînatîon Gender dîscrîmînatîon

Naturalîsatîon

Dual natîonalîty

Loss, deprîvatîon and arbîtrary non-recognîtîon

Internatîonal norms

Recommendatîons

International norms on nationality The rîght to a natîonalîty and prohîbîtîon o statelessness Natîonalîty în the context o state successîon Deprîvatîon or non-recognîtîon o natîonalîty and expulsîon rom a terrîtory

The jurîsprudence o the Arîcan human rîghts bodîes

Arîcan states’ accessîon to înternatîonal treatîes

Nationality under colonial rule and the transition to independence

The basis of nationality law today

The right to a nationality in national law

Nationality based on birth in the territory Chîldren o stateless parents or who would otherwîse be stateless Foundlîngs or chîldren o unknown parents

Nationality based on descent

Adopted children

Racial and ethnic discrimination

iii

v vii viii ix

1 4 5 6 7 9 9 11 13

21 21 29 30 33 36

38

43

45

47 49 49

53

57

60

C I T I Z E N S H I P L A W I N A F R I C A

Gender discrimination Natîonalîty o chîldren Natîonalîty based on marrîage Partîal reorms on gender equalîty în North Arîca

Dual nationality

Naturalisation

Nationality requirements for public ofIce Dual natîonalîty Naturalîsed persons

Rights for the African diaspora Ethîopîa Ghana

Loss and deprivation of nationality

Renunciation and reacquisition

Evidence and documentation Bîrth regîstratîon and evîdence o entîtlement to natîonalîty Proo o natîonalîty The rîght to a passport

State successions since independence Separatîon o part o a terrîtory Transers o terrîtory

Naturalisation as a “durable solution” for refugees

Appendix: Legal sources List of tables Table 1: Right to nationality based on birth in the territory Table 2: Right to nationality based on descent Table 3: Right to nationality for adopted children

Table 4: Right to transmit nationality to a spouse

Table 5: Countries permitting and prohibiting dual nationality for adults

Table 6: Right to acquire nationality by naturalisation

Table 7: Criteria for loss of nationality

Table 8: Renunciation and reacquisition

iv

63 63 65 70

73

80

97 97 98

101 101 101

103

112

116 116 118 121

125 125 126

128

134

50 54 58 66 77 86 109 113

Preface to the third edition

Thîs îs the thîrd edîtîon o thîs book, orîgînally publîshed în 2009 and wrîtten whîle I was an employee o Open Socîety Foundatîons (OSF). The second edîtîon o 2010 încluded updates on several countrîes and some mînor correctîons. Thîs thîrd edîtîon îs a comprehensîve revîsîon o the orîgînal text, updated to reflect developments at natîonal and contînental levels, to clarîy some înterpretatîons based on my încreased understandîng o the îssues, and to present completely revîsed and împroved tables based on comparatîve analysîs o the natîonalîty laws o 54 countrîes în Arîca, as well as addîtîonal tables dealîng wîth new aspects o the law. The appendîx contaîns the updated lîst o laws în orce as o 2015 used to compîle thîs study. Among the countrîes that have adopted revîsîons to theîr natîonalîty laws o greater or lesser sîgnîficance sînce 2009/10 are Côte d’Ivoîre, Kenya, Lîbya, Malî, Maurîtanîa, Namîbîa, Nîger, Senegal, Seychelles, South Arîca, Sudan, Tunîsîa and Zîmbabwe. Perhaps the most sîgnîficant other developments wîth împacts on natîonalîty law and the rîght to a natîonalîty are the secessîon o South Sudan rom Sudan, and the împact o South Sudan’s new natîonalîty on both countrîes, and the transer o sovereîgnty o the Bakassî penînsula rom Nîgerîa to Cameroon. There have also been major developments în standard-settîng at the Arîcan and înternatîonal levels. The Arîcan Commîssîon on Human and Peoples’ Rîghts adopted two resolutîons and a study on the rîght to natîonalîty în Arîca, leadîng up to the adoptîon în July 2015 o a drat Protocol to the Arîcan Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rîghts on the Specîfic Aspects o the Rîght to a Natîonalîty and the Eradîcatîon o Statelessness în Arîca. The Arîcan Commîttee o Experts on the Rîghts and Welare o the Chîld handed down an împortant decîsîon on the natîonalîty o chîldren o Nubîan orîgîn în Kenya în 2011, whîch înormed a General Comment on Artîcle 6 o the Arîcan Charter on the Rîghts and Welare o the Chîld (name, bîrth regîstratîon and a natîonalîty) adopted by the Commîttee în 2014. The UN Hîgh Commîssîoner or Reugees (UNHCR) has also adopted a number o guîdelînes and other documents on statelessness and în 2014 launched a major campaîgn to end statelessness wîthîn 10 years. In Arîca, UNHCR’s regîonal oice în Dakar has collaborated wîth the Economîc Communîty o West Arîcan States (ECOWAS), leadîng to the adoptîon în 2015 o a regîonal declaratîon on the urgency o addressîng statelessness.

v

C I T I Z E N S H I P L A W I N A F R I C A

The first edîtîon o thîs book was publîshed at the same tîme as myStruggles for Citizenship in Africa(Zed Books, 2009), whîch gathered case studîes o the practîce o statelessness and cîtîzenshîp dîscrîmînatîon în Botswana, Côte d’Ivoîre, Democratîc Republîc o Congo, Ethîopîa, Kenya, Maurîtanîa, Nîgerîa, Sîerra Leone, Swazîland, Tanzanîa, Uganda, Zambîa, Zîmbabwe and elsewhere. Thîs text draws on the înormatîon înStruggles for Citizenship in Africa, as well as on several subsequent publîcatîons, încludîngStatelessness in Southern Africa, a brîefing paper or a UNHCR Regîonal Conerence on Statelessness în Southern Arîca în November 2011, andNationality, Migration and Statelessness in West Africa, UNHCR and IOM, 2015. The tables and înormatîon în the first edîtîon o the report were also updated or use by the Arîcan Commîssîon on Human and Peoples’ Rîghts în îts study onThe Right to Nationality in Africaadopted în May 2014. The genesîs o thîs report lay în înormatîon collected as part o a 14-country “Arîca cîtîzenshîp audît” înîtîated by Chîdî Odînkalu and Julîa Harrîngton o the Open Socîety Justîce Inîtîatîve workîng wîth the Arîca oundatîons în the Open Socîety Foundatîons network. Inormatîon on thîs survey and îts 1 partîcîpants îs avaîlable at the websîte o the Open Socîety Justîce Inîtîatîve. A group o natîonalîty experts and advocates met în London on 20 February 2009 to dîscuss the recommendatîons or thîs report. Those who attended the meetîng were: Adrîan Berry, Chaloka Beyanî, Brad Blîtz, Deîrdre Clancy, Jîm Goldston, René de Groot, Julîa Harrîngton, Adam Husseîn, Khotî Kamanga, Ibrahîma Kane, Mark Manly, Dîsmas Nkunda, Chîdî Odînkalu, Louîse Olîvîer, Gaye Sowe, Souleymane Sagna, Ozîas Tungwarara and Patrîck Weîl. Abdelsalam Hassan Abdelsalam, Jorunn Brandvoll, Laurîe Fransman, Susîn Park, Santhosh Persaud and Laura van Waas also provîded înput on the recommendatîons. Whîle most o the rest o the book has been revîsed sînce 2009, the recommendatîons remaîn unchanged. Thanks to all my colleagues at the Open Socîety Foundatîons or theîr support and guîdance over many years o workîng on these îssues.

1

Bronwen Manby January 2016

https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/africa-discrimination-and-citizenship-audit-report

vi

Disclaimer

Whîle every efort has been made to ensure that the tables and descrîptîons o the laws în Arîcan countrîes are accurate and up to date, very complex provîsîons have been sîmplîfied. Readers should not treat them as definîtîve nor accord them the status o legal advîce. Many provîsîons are subject to înterpretatîon, and dîicult to represent în tabular orm. In thîs edîtîon, the laws and tables are updated to the end o December 2015. In the tables, the final column reerencîng the legal source gîves the orîgînal date o the law currently în orce, wîth the date o the latest amendment în brackets.

vii

Abbreviations

ACHPR ACRWC AHRLR AU CAR

CEDAW

CERD

CRC DRC EAC ECOWAS ICCPR ICJ ILC IOM OAU SADC SADR STP UK UN UNHCR

Arîcan Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rîghts

Arîcan Charter on the Rîghts and Welare o the Chîld

Arîcan Human Rîghts Law Reports

Arîcan Unîon

Central Arîcan Republîc

Conventîon on the Elîmînatîon o All Forms o Dîscrîmînatîon Agaînst Women

Internatîonal Conventîon on the Elîmînatîon o Racîal Dîscrîmînatîon

Conventîon on the Rîghts o the Chîld

Democratîc Republîc o Congo

East Arîcan Communîty

Economîc Communîty o West Arîcan States

Internatîonal Covenant on Cîvîl and Polîtîcal Rîghts

Internatîonal Court o Justîce

Internatîonal Law Commîssîon

Internatîonal Organîsatîon or Mîgratîon

Organîsatîon o Arîcan Unîty

Southern Arîcan Development Communîty

Sahrawî Arab Democratîc Republîc

São Tomé and Príncîpe

Unîted Kîngdom (o Great Brîtaîn and Northern Ireland)

Unîted Natîons

UN Hîgh Commîssîoner or Reugees

viii

DeInitions

Citizenship/nationality: In thîs report cîtîzenshîp and natîonalîty are used înterchangeably as în contemporary înternatîonal law usage to reer to the legal relatîonshîp between an îndîvîdual and a state, în whîch the state recognîzes and guarantees the îndîvîdual’s rîghts. In the 1955Nottebohmthe Internatîonal Court o Justîce saîd that case, “[a]ccordîng to the practîce o States, to arbîtral and judîcîal decîsîons and to the opînîon o wrîters, natîonalîty îs a legal bond havîng as îts basîs a socîal act o attachment, a genuîne connectîon o exîstence, înterest and sentîments, 2 together wîth the exîstence o recîprocal rîghts and dutîes”. Precîsely whîch rîghts the state guarantees to îts natîonals/cîtîzens varîes by state, but the most common restrîcted rîghts are the rîght to permanent resîdence wîthîn the state, the rîght to reedom o movement wîthîn the state, the rîght to vote and to be elected or appoînted to publîc oice, the rîght o access to publîc servîces, and the rîght to dîplomatîc protectîon when outsîde the country. In addîtîon there are other rîghts that are guaranteed to non-natîonals as well as natîonals by the înternatîonal human rîghts regîme. In domestîc law, “cîtîzenshîp” îs used more oten în the Commonwealth states or thîs legal bond o rîghts and dutîes, whîle the cîvîl law countrîes use “natîonalîty” (nationalité/nacionalidade). However, înternatîonal law texts more commonly (though not consîstently) use the term “natîonalîty”, even în Englîsh language versîons: thîs report avours the use o “natîonalîty” în relatîon to înternatîonal oblîgatîons and în cîvîl law contexts, usîng 3 “cîtîzenshîp” and “cîtîzen” în the common law states. “Cîtîzenshîp” îs not used here wîth îts wîder meanîng în polîtîcal scîence or socîology encompassîng the îdea o ull partîcîpatîon în a communîty, nor does “natîonalîty” have any ethnîc or racîal connotatîon.

Nationality from birth/of origin: Natîonalîty or cîtîzenshîp rom bîrth îs used în thîs report to mean natîonalîty that an îndîvîdual îs automatîcally attrîbuted by law rom the moment o bîrth rather than acquîred as an adult or ollowîng any admînîstratîve process. Natîonalîty granted solely on the basîs o bîrth în a terrîtory (byjus soli) îs a separate concept, and explîcîtly descrîbed as such

2Liechtenstein v. GuatemalaICJ Reports, 1955, p. 23. Liechtenstein sought a ruling that Guatemala should recognise Friedrich Nottebohm as a Liechtenstein national. See also Carol A Batchelor, “Statelessness and the Problem of Resolving Nationality Status,”International Journal of Refugee Law, Vol. 10, No. 1/2, 1998, pp. 159–160. 3 This is a change from the second edition, where “citizenship” was used more often; however, “citizenship” and especially “citizen” are still used in some contexts where they sound more natural in English. In French, the natural term for a national is often “ressortissant”; however,ressortissantcan have a slightly wider meaning than those with nationality, to encompass others falling under the state’s jurisdiction, depending on context.

ix

C I T I Z E N S H I P L A W I N A F R I C A

în thîs report. In Commonwealth countrîes, the term used în law or thîs concept îs oten “cîtîzenshîp by bîrth”; however, gîven the common conusîon thîs phrasîng creates wîth the concept o cîtîzenshîp attrîbuted to any person born în the terrîtory—on whîch ît was orîgînally, but îs no longer, based— use o the phrase “cîtîzenshîp by bîrth” îs restrîcted here to reerences to the wordîng o partîcular natîonal laws rather than to dîscussîon o the prîncîples that should be respected. In the cîvîl law countrîes, the phrase “natîonalîty o orîgîn” (nationalité d’origine/nacionalidade de origem) encompasses the same îdea o natîonalîty attrîbuted automatîcally rom bîrth, and wîll sometîmes be used în thîs text as a translatîon. In some cîrcumstances în some countrîes, the law provîdes that an îndîvîdual can obtaîn retroactîve recognîtîon o cîtîzenshîp rom bîrthafterbîrth.

Nationality by descent: When an îndîvîdual obtaîns natîonalîty on the basîs o hîs or her ather’s and/or mother’s natîonalîty (regardless o place o bîrth), thîs îs termed “natîonalîty by descent”.

Nationality by acquisition: Natîonalîty that has beenacquîred by anadmînîstratîve process ater bîrth such as by naturalîsatîon, regîstratîon, declaratîon, optîon, or marrîage îs termed “natîonalîty by acquîsîtîon”.

Appropriate connection:Thîs îs a termusedby the Internatîonal LawCommîssîon în îtsDraft Articles on Nationality of Natural Persons in Relation to the Succession of States. An “approprîate connectîon” can mean habîtual resîdence, a legal connectîon wîth one o the constîtuent unîts o a predecessor state, or bîrth în the terrîtory o a state concerned. But, “în the absence o the above-mentîoned type o lînk between a person concerned and a State concerned urther crîterîa, such as beîng a descendant o a person who îs a natîonal o a State concerned or havîng once resîded în the terrîtory whîch îs a part o a State concerned, 4 should be taken înto consîderatîon”.

Habitual residence: There îs no agreed-upon definîtîon în înternatîonal law o what îs meant by “habîtual resîdence”. Guîdelînes adopted by the UNHCR state that “[t]he term ‘habîtual resîdence’ îs to be understood as stable, actual 5 resîdence … [and] does not împly a legal or ormal resîdence requîrement”. Jurîsprudence o the European Court o Justîce has establîshed that, în general, the country o “habîtual resîdence” îs consîdered to mean the state where the centre o a person’s înterests lîe and where he or she has the strongest personal connectîons. Such connectîons need not be numerous but must have a degree o permanency greater than any connectîons wîth other states.

4ILC Draft Articles on Nationality of Natural Persons in Relation to the Succession of States,1999 (Annex to UNGA Res. 55/153, 12 Dec. 2000), Article 11, commentary paragraph 10. 5 Guidelines on Statelessness No. 4: Ensuring Every Child’s Right to Acquire a Nationality through Articles 1–4 of the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness, UNHCR 2012, para. 41.

x