The silk roads of the Northern Tibetan plateau during the early middle ages (from the Han to Tang dynasty) as reconstructed from archaeological and written sources [Elektronische Ressource] / submitted by Tao Tong

THE SILK ROADS OF THE NORTHERN TIBETAN PLATEAU DURING
THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES (FROM THE HAN TO TANG DYNASTY)
AS RECONSTRUCTED FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND WRITTEN
SOURCES










Dissertation for obtaining the degree
Doctor of Philosophy
The Faculty of Culture Sciences
The Eberhard-Karls University of Tübingen


Submitted by
Tao Tong from China
2008
































Gedruckt mit Genehmigung der

Fakultät für Kulturwissenschaften der Universität Tübingen
Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Ernst Pernicka
PD Dr. Mayke Wagner
Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 19. November 2008
Dekan: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Leonhardt

CONTENTS

List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………...…page v
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………..…………..….vii
List of Maps………………………………………………………………………………….viii
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………..……..…ix
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………….xxvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………..1

1.1 About the concepts of the Silk Road and a brief history of research on the Silk
Road on the northern Tibetan Plateau…………………………………………....1
1.1.1 About the Silk Road……………………………….…………………..1
1.1.2 Previous studies on transport routes on the northern Tibetan
Plateau………….…………………………………………………………….3
1.1.3 Previous studies on the cultural history of the northern Tibetan
Plateau…………….……………………………………...…………………..6
1.2 Goals of this research…………………………………...………………………..9

CHAPTER 2 THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE NORTHERN TIBETAN
PLATEAU……………………………………………………………………………………11

2.1 The Natural environment………………………………………………………11
2.1.1 Eastern monsoonal region of the Tibetan Plateau…………………….11
2.1.2 Northwestern arid region of the Tibetan Plateau12
2.1.3 Southern alpine cold region of the Ti…………………..13
2.2 The population…………………………………………………………………14

CHAPTER 3 TRANSPORT ROUTES ON THE NORTHERN TIBETAN PLATEAU AS
MENTIONED IN CHINESE SOURCES…………………………………………………….15

3.1 The early records (pre-Han period)…………………………………………….15
3.2 The Han and Jin periods (206 BC–317AD)…………………………………..16
3.2.1 The Western Han and Xin Dynasties (206 BC–25 AD)……………16
i
3.2.2 The Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD)……………………………19
3.2.3 The Wei and Western Jin period (220–317 AD)…………………..…21
3.3 The Early Tuyuhun period (300–663 AD)……………………………………22
3.3.1 The Sixteen States period (300–420 AD)……………………………..22
3.3.2 The Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–581 AD)……………..…24
3.3.3 The Sui and Tang rule (581–663 AD)……………………………29
3.4 The period of Tubo rule (the later Tuyuhun period) (663–842 AD)…………32

RDCHAPTER 4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS OF THE HAN AND JIN PERIODS (3
RDCENTURY BC–3 CENTURY AD)……………………………………………………38

4.1 An overview of the pre-Han culture…………………………………………….38
4.2 The Han and Jin cemeteries…………………………………………………….42
4.2.1 The types of the Han and Jin tombs in the Shangsunjiazhai cemetery
………………………………………………………………………………42
4.2.2 Other important Han and Jin cemeteries……………………………...50
4. 3 Han and Jin City-sites and settlements…………...……………………………55
4.4 The identity of the inhabitants of the Han and Jin sites………………………...58
4.4.1 The Han Chinese……………………………………………………58
4.4.2. The Indigenous Qiang (?)……………………………………………62
4.4.3. The Xiongnu (Huns)…………………………………………………63
4.5 Regional cultural interactions as reflected by important artifacts……………64
4.5.1 Expansion of the Han culture from the Central Plain………………65
4.5.2 Special items from beyond the Central Plain…………………………68
4.6 Summary………………………………………………………………………..74

CHAPTER 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF SITES ON THE NORTHERN TIBETAN
THPLATEAU ALONG THE SILK ROAD DURING THE EARLY TUYUHUN PERIOD (4 –
THMID 7 CENTURY AD)……………………………………………………………….……77

5.1 Cemeteries and city-sites…………………………………………………….....77
5.2 Artifacts…………………..……………………………………………………..81
5.3 Summary……………………………………………………………………..…83

ii
CHAPTER 6 ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF SITES ON THE NORTHERN TIBETAN
PLATEAU ALONG THE SILK ROAD DURING THE TUBO PERIOD (THE LATER
TH THTUYUHUN PERIOD, MID 7 –8 CENTURY AD)…………………………………..…85

6.1 The Tubo-Tuyuhun cemeteries…………………………………………………85
6.1.1 The structure of the Tubo cemeteries: the Reshui cemetery as an
example…………………………………………………………………..…85
6.1.2 Other important Tubo-Tuyuhun cemeteries…………………………..90
6.1.3 A discussion of the general features of the Tubo-Tuyuhun
tombs…………………………….………………………………………….95
6.2 Burial goods…………………………………………………………………...99
6.2.1 Pottery…………………………………………………………….…99
6.2.2 Painted wooden fragments………………………………………..…100
6.2.3 Leatherware……………………………………………………….…101
6.2.4 Bronze and iron…………………………………………………...…102
6.2.5 Semiprecious stones…………………………………………………103
6.2.6 Stone, brick, wood and clay sculptures……………………………...104
6.2.7 Lacquerware………………………………………………………....107
6.2.8 Gold and silver ware……………………………………………...…109
6.2.9 Silkware……………………………………………………….129
6.2.10 Materials with inscriptions…………………………………………143
6.3 The dating of the tombs………………………………………………………147
6.4 Important Tang-Tubo fortresses, city-sites and other monuments on the northern
Tibetan Plateau………………...………………………………………………148
6.5 The coffin paintings and the reflected cultural panorama……………………..153
6.5.1 The content and pictorial program of the wooden coffin
paintings……………………………………………………………...……153
6.5.2 The human figures in the coffin paintings and the ethnic affiliations of
the cemetery’s occupants…………………………………………………165
6.5.3 The documented scenes of life of the Tuyuhun……………………180
6.5.4 The Influence of the Western Region (Xiyu) on the Tubo-Tuyuhun
coffin paintings……………………………………………………………182

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS……………………………………………………………192
iii

APPENDIX………………………………………………………………………………….196
Tables………………..………………………………………………………………………197
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………241
Maps…………………………………………………………………………………………270
Figures………………………………………………………………………………………285

































iv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AA Artibus Asiae
AAs Arts Asiatiques
AEAE Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia
BS Bei Shi 北史 (History of the Northern Dynasties)
CAJ Central Asiatic Journal
CFYG Cefu Yuangui 册府元龟 (Outstanding models from the storehouse of
literature)
HHS Hou Han Shu 后汉书 (History of the Later Han)
HS Han Shu 汉书 (History of the Former Han)
JS Jin Shu 晋书 (History of the Jin)
JTS Jiu Tang Shu 旧唐书 (Old History of the Tang)
KG Kaogu 考古 (Archaeology)
KGXB Kaogu xuebao 考古学报 (Acta Archaeological Sinica)
KGyWW Kaogu yu wenwu 考古与文物 (Archaeology and Cultural Relics)
KGTX Kaogu tongxun 考古通讯 (Archaeology Report)
LS Liang Shu 梁书 (History of the Liang)
MSYJ Meishu yanjiu 美术研究(Art Research)
NQS Nan Qi Shu 南齐书 (History of the Southern Qi)
QKXH Qinghai kaogu xuehui huikan 青海考古学会会刊 (Journal of Qinghai
Archaeological Society)
QHWW Qinghai wenwu青海文物 (Qinghai Cultural Relics)
SJ Shi Ji 史记 (Records of the Historian)
SuS Sui Shu 隋书 (History of the Sui)
SGZ San Guo Zhi三国志 (History of the Three Kingdoms)
SS Song Shu 宋书 (History of the Song)
TD Tong Dian 通典 (Comprehensive Canons)
WB Wenbo文博 (Cultural Relics and Museums)
WS Wei Shu 魏书 (History of the Wei)
WW Wenwu 文物 (Cultural Relics)
WWSJ Wenwu shijie 文物世界 (World of Antiquity)
XTS Xin Tang Shu 新唐书 (New History of the Tang)
XWDS Xin Wu Dai Shi 新五代史 (New History of Five Dynasties)
XZYJ Xizang yanjiu 西藏研究 (Tibetan Studies)
ZGD Zhongguo guojia dili 中国国家地理 (Chinese National Geographic)
v
ZGWWB Zhongguo wenwu bao 中国文物报 (Weekly News about China’s Cultural
Relics)
ZGZX Zhongguo zangxue 中国藏学 (China Tibetology)
ZLSWW Zhongguo lishi wenwu 中国历史文物 (Journal of National Museum of
Chinese History)
ZS Zhou Shu 周书 (History of the Zhou)














































vi
LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.2.2-1 Han and Jin settlements
Table 4.2.2-2 Han and Jin cemeteries
Table 4.3-1 Han and Jin fortresses and city-sites
Table 4.3-2 Han and Jin cities only recorded in Chinese sources (no archaeological
remains)
Table 4.6-1 Distribution of the Han and Jin sites
Table 6.2.7-1 Black or purple-black lacquerware
Table 6.2.7-2 Varnish (or tong oil) ware
Table 6.2.8-1 Sasanian silver coins
Table 6.2.9-1 Silkware
Table 6.2.9-2 Dating of silkware in comparison with Turfan silks
Table 6.4-1 Tang-Tubo settlements an