An assessment of ecosystem services of the Everest region, Nepal [Elektronische Ressource] / vorgelegt von Bikram Tamang

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• Publié par: christian-albrechts-universitat_zu_kiel
• Publié le: 01 janvier 2011
• Nombre de lectures: 43
• Langue: Deutsch
• Poids de l'ouvrage: 10 Mo

Extrait

Institut für Natur-und Ressourcenschutz
Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel




An Assessment of Ecosystem Services of the Everest Region, Nepal





Dissertation
Zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades
der Agrar- und Ernährungswissenschaftlichen Fakultät
der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel






Vorgelegt von

M.Sc. Bikram Tamang
aus Dharan, Nepal


Kiel, 2011




Dekan: Prof. Dr. Karin Schwarz
1. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Felix Müller
2. Berichter: Prof. Dr. Hans- Rudolf Bork
Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 12. Mai 2011















Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ I
List of Abbreviations .... II
List of Figures .............. III
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... VI
Abstract ...................... VII
1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Concept of ecosystem services ......................... 1
1.1.1 Ecosystem service classifications ...................................... 3
1.1.2 Evaluation of ecosystem services ....................................... 6
1.1.3 Mapping of ecosystem services .......... 7
1.2 The Himalayas .................................................................................. 8
1.3 Structure of the thesis ..... 12
2 Study region ............................ 14
2.1 Nepal ............................................................................................... 14
2.1.1 Himalayas of Nepal.......................... 14
2.1.2 People of Nepal ................................ 15
2.1.3 Protected areas of Nepal ................................................. 15
2.2 Everest (Sagarmatha) National Park and Buffer Zone ................... 15
2.2.1 Physical aspects ............................................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Ecological zones .............................. 20
2.2.3 Socio-cultural aspects ...................... 23
2.3 History of Everest (Sagarmatha) National Park and Buffer Zone . 34
2.3.1 Major role of Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone ............................. 35
2.4 Tourism ........................................................................................... 38
2.5 Tourism and socio-cultural change in the Everest region .............. 40
2.5.1 Culture and religion ......................................................... 40
2.5.2 Local income structure .................................................... 42
2.5.3 Education ......................................................................... 44
2.5.4 Food and clothes .............................. 46
2.5.5 Tourism and settlement characteristics ........................... 47
2.5.6 Tourianimal husbandry ....................................... 51
2.5.7 Tourism and agriculture .................................................. 54
2.6 Tourism and forestry ...... 55
2.6.1 Tourism and fuelwood...................................................... 57
2.7 Soil erosion, landslide and trail degradation .. 62
2.8 Climate change ............................................... 65
2.9 Land cover of Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone ........... 69
3 Materials and methods ..................................................................... 71
3.1 Method of analyzing land use change ............ 71
3.2 Identification of indicators.............................. 72
3.3 Assessment matrix: land cover vs. ecosystem services ................. 76
3.4 Quantification of ecosystem services ............................................. 77
3.4.1 Questionnaire survey ....................................................... 77
3.4.2 Personal interviews .......................... 84
3.5 Provisioning services ...... 86



3.5.1 Fuelwood.......................................................................................................... 86
3.5.2 Potatoes............ 87
3.5.3 Livestock products (butter and milk) ............................... 87
3.5.4 Transportation via livestock ............ 87
3.6 Regulating services......................................................................... 87
3.6.1 Soil erosion ...... 87
3.6.2 Carbon production ........................... 89
3.7 Cultural services ............. 90
3.7.1 Religious value ................................................................................................. 90
3.7.2 Aesthetic value . 90
3.8 Supply, demand and balance map of ecosystem services .............. 91
4 Results ......................................................................................................... 92
4.1 Changes in land use ........ 92
4.2 Changes in the inhabited settlements..............................................97
4.2.1 Growth of number of households and lodges .................................................. 97
4.2.2 Increases of the household members ............................... 99
4.2.3 Increehold yearly income ..................... 100
4.2.4 Changes in the household’s time spent on religious purposes ...................... 100
4.2.5 Cs in fuelwood consumption patterns .................................................. 103
4.2.6 Changes in the livestock numbers and compositions ..................................... 104
4.3 Changes in tourism ........................................ 107
4.3.1 Increases in the costs of Everest trips ............................................................ 107
4.3.2 Changes in the tourist expenditure 108
4.4 Ecosystem service supply and demand matrices .......................... 110
4.4.1 Landscape capacities providing ecosystem services ..................................... 110
4.4.2 Ecosystem service demand assessment ................................ 112
4.5 Spatial and temporal changes in provisioning services ................ 113
4.5.1 Changes in the quantities of fuelwood demand and supply ........................... 113
4.5.2 Cs in potato demand and supply .......................... 117
4.5.3 Changes in milk demand and supply ............................................................. 123
4.5.4 Cs in butter demand and supply ........................... 129
4.5.5 Changes in the supply of transportation ........................ 135
4.6 Spatial and temporal changes in the regulating services............... 137
4.6.1 Changes in the demand of soil erosion regulation ........................................ 137
4.6.2 Cs in carbon production and sequestration ......... 139
4.7 Spatial and temporal changes in the cultural services ................... 143
4.7.1 Changes in the supply and demand of religious values ................................. 143
4.7.2 Cs of the aesthetic value ....................................... 148
4.8 Integration of the results concerning ecosystem services ............. 150
5 Discussion................................ 155
5.1 Causes of land cover changes and their consequences ................. 156
5.1.1 Glaciers/snows land cover ............................................................................. 156
5.1.2 Vegetation land cover types ........... 157
5.1.3 Bare rock and bare soil land cover types ...................... 158
5.2 Causes of settlement changes and their consequences .................. 158
5.2.1 Houses and lodges ......................................................................................... 158
5.2.2 Fuelwood........................................ 159
5.2.3 Tourism based income ................... 159



5.2.4 Religious practices ......................................................................................... 160
5.2.5 Livestock ........................................ 160
5.3 Drivers and their impacts on provisioning services ...................... 161
5.3.1 Fuelwood........................................................................ 161
5.3.2 Potatoes.......... 162
5.3.3 Livestock products ......................................................................................... 163
5.3.4 Transportation ............................... 165
5.4 Drivers and their impacts on regulating services .......................... 165
5.5 Drivers and their impacts on cultural services .............................. 167
5.5.1 Religious values ............................................................................................. 167
5.5.2 Aesthetic values 169
5.6 Challenges and significances of land cover types ......................... 170
6 Conclusions ............................ 173
References ........................................................................................................... 180


Annex