Manures and the principles of manuring
Description
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Informations
| Publié par | dipon |
| Publié le | 08 décembre 2010 |
| Nombre de lectures | 33 |
| Langue | English |
| Poids de l'ouvrage | 1 Mo |
Extrait
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MCMX
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY NEWYORK
All Rights reserved
TO
SIR JOHN BENNET LAWES,BART., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
OFROTHAMSTED,
AND
SIR J. HENRY GILBERT, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
FORMERLYSIBTHORPIAN PROFESSOR OFRURALECONOMY, UNIVERSITYOFOXFORD, WHOSE FAMOUS INVESTIGATIONS DURING THE LAST FIFTYYEARS HAVE SO LARGELYCONTRIBUTED TO BUILD UP THE SCIENCE OFMANURING,
THIS WORK,
EMBODYING MANYOFTHE ROTHAMSTED RESULTS, IS DEDICATED.
PREFACE.
When the present work was first undertaken there were but few works in English dealing with its subject-matter, and hardly any which dealt with the question of Manuring at any length. During the last few years, however, owing to the greatly increased interest taken in agricultural education, the demand for agricultural scientific literature has called into existence quite a number of new works. Despite this fact, the author ventures to believe that the gap which the present treatise was originally designed to fill is still unfilled. Of the importance of the subject all interested in agriculture are well aware. It is no exaggeration to say that the introduction of the practice of artificial manuring has revolutionised modern husbandry. Indeed, without the aid of artificial manures, arable farming, as at present carried out, would be impossible. Fifty years ago the practice may be said to have been unknown; yet so widespread has it now become, that at the present time the capital invested in the manure trade in this country alone amounts to millions sterling. It need scarcely be pointed out, therefore, that a practice in which such vast monetary interests are involved is worthy of the most careful consideration by all students of agricultural science, as well as, it may be added, by politic al economists. The aim of the present work is to supply in a conci se and popular form the chief results of recent agricultural research on the question of soil fertility, and the nature and action of various manures. It makes no
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pretence to be an exhaustive treatise on the subject, and only contains those facts which seem to the author to have an important bearing on agricultural practice. In the treatment of its subject it may be said to stand midway between Professor Storer's recently published elaborate and excellent treatise on 'Agriculture in some of its Relations to Chemistry'—a work which is to be warmly recommended to all students of agricultural science, and to which the author would take this opportunity of acknowledging his indebtedness —and Dr J. M. H. Munro's admirable little work on 'Soils and Manures.' In order to render the work as intelligible to the ordinary agricultural reader as possible, all tabular matter and matter of a more or less technical nature have been relegated to the Appendices attached to each chapter. The author's somewhat wide experience as a Universi ty Extension Lecturer, and as a Lecturer in connection with County Council schemes of agricultural education, during the last few years, induces him to believe that the work may be of especial value to those engaged in teaching agricultural science. He has to express the deep obligation he is under, in common with all writers on Agricultural Chemistry, to the classic researches of Sir John Bennet Lawes, Bart., and Sir J. Henry Gilbert, now in progress for more than fifty years at Sir John Lawes' Experiment Station at Rothamsted. His debt of gratitude to these distinguished investigators has been still further increased by their kindness in permitting him to dedicate the work to them, and for having been good enough to read portions of the work in proof. In addition to the free use which has been made throughout the book of the results of these experiments, the last chapter contains, in a tabular form, a short epitome of some of the more important Rothamsted researches on the action of different manures. To the numerous German and French works on the subject, more especially to Professor Heiden's encyclopædic 'Lehrbuch der Düngerlehre' and the various writings of Dr Emil von Wolff, the author is further much indebted. Among English works he would especially mention the assistance he has derived from the writings of Mr R. Warington, F.R.S., Professor S. W. Johnson, Professor Armsby, the late Dr Augustus Voelcker, and others. He would also tender his acknowledgments to the new edition of Stephens' 'Book of the Farm,' and he has to thank its editor, his friend Mr James Macdonald, Se cretary to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, for having read parts of his proof-sheets. It is also his pleasing duty to thank his friends D r Bernard Dyer, Hon Secretary of the Society of Public Analysts, Dr A. P. Aitken, Chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland; Professor Douglas Gilchrist of Bangor; Mr F. J. Cooke, late of Flitcham; Mr Hermann Voss of London; and Professor Wright of Glasgow, for having assisted him in the revision of proof-sheets. ANALYTICALLABORATORY, 128 WELLINGTONSTREET, GLASGOW, January 1894.
CONTENTS.
PART I.—HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Beginning of agricultural chemistry Early theories regarding plant-growth Van Helmont Digby Duhamel and Stephen Hales Jethro Tull Charles Bonnet's discovery of source of plants' carbon Researches of Priestley, Ingenhousz, Sénébier, on assimilation of carbon Publication of first English treatise by Earl Dundonald Publication of Theodore de Saussure, 'Chemical Researches on Vegetation,' 1804 Theories on source of plant-nitrogen Early experiments on this subject Sir Humphry Davy's lectures (1802-1812) State of agricultural chemistry in 1812 Beginning of Boussingault's researches (1834)
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Publication of Liebig's first report to the British Association Refutation of "humus" theory Liebig's mineral theory Liebig's theory of source of plants' nitrogen Publication of Liebig's second report to British Association Liebig's services to agricultural chemistry Development of agricultural research in Germany The Rothamsted Experiment Station Sir J. B. Lawes and Sir J. H. Gilbert, the nature and value of their experiments Review of the present state of our knowledge of plant-growth Proximate composition of the plant Fixation of carbon by plants Action of light on plant-growth, Dr Siemens' experiments Source of oxygen and hydrogen in the plant Source of nitrogen in the plant Relation of the free nitrogen to leguminous plants Relation of nitrogen in organic forms, as ammonia salts, and nitrates to the plant Nitrification and its conditions Ash constituents of the plant Methods of research for ascertaining essentialness of ash constituents of plants (a) Artificial soils, (b) water-culture Method in which plants absorb their food-constitue nts Endosmosis Retention by soils of plant-food Causes of retention by soils of plant-food Manuring "Field" and "pot" experimentation PART II.—PRINCIPLES OF MANURING. CHAPTER I.—FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. What constitutes fertility in a soil I. Physical properties of a soil Kinds of soils Absorptive power for water of soils Absorptive power for water of sand, clay, and humus Fineness of particles of a soil Limit of fineness of soil-particles Importance of retentive power Power of plants for absorbing water from a soil, experiments by Sachs How to increase absorptive power of soils Amount of water in a soil most favourable for plant growth Hygroscopic power of soils Capacity of soils for absorbing and retaining heat Explanation of dew Heat of soils Heat in rotting farmyard manure Causes of heat of fermentation Influence of colour on heat-retaining power Power of soils for absorbing gases Gases found in soils Variation in gas-absorbing power of soils Absorption of nitrogen by soils Requirements of plant-roots in a soil Influence of tillage on number of plants in a certain area Comparison of English and American farming II. Chemical composition of a soil
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Fertilising ingredients of a soil Importance ofnitrogen,phosphoric acid, andpotashin a soil Chemical condition of fertilising ingredients in s oils Amount of soluble fertilising ingredients in soils Value of chemical analysis of soils III. Biological properties of a soil Bacteria of the soil Recapitulation of Chapter I APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I. NOTE I. Table of absorptive power of soil substances by Schübler II. Table of rate of evaporation of water in different soils by Schübler III. Table of hygroscopic power of soils dried at 212° F. (Davy) IV. Gases persent in soil V. Amount of plant-food in soils VI. Chemical composition of the soil VII. Forms in which plant-foods are present in the soil CHAPTER II.—FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY MANURES. Etymological meaning of word manure Definition of manures Different classes of manures Action of different classes of manures CHAPTER III.—POSITION OF NITROGEN IN AGRICULTURE. The Rothamsted experiments and the nitrogen question Different forms in which nitrogen exists in nature Relation of "free" nitrogen to the plant Combined nitrogen in the air Amount of combined nitrogen falling in the rain Nitrogen in the soil Nitrogen in the subsoil Nitrogen of surface-soil Amount of nitrogen in the soil Soils richest in nitrogen Nature of the nitrogen in the soil Organic nitrogen in the soil Differences of surface and subsoil nitrogen Nitrogen as ammonia in soils Amount of ammonia in soils Nitrogen present as nitrates in the soil Position of nitric nitrogen in soil Amount of nitrates in the soil Amount of nitrates in fallow soils Amount of nitrates in cropped soils Amount of nitrates in manured wheat-soils The sources of soil-nitrogen Accumulation of soil-nitrogen under natural conditions Accumulation of nitrogen in pastures Gain of nitrogen with leguminous crops The fixation of "free" nitrogen Influence of manures in increasing soil-nitrogen Sources of loss of nitrogen Loss of nitrates by drainage Prevention of loss of nitrogen by permanent pasture and "catch-cropping" Other conditions diminishing loss of nitrates Amount of loss of nitrogen by drainage
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Loss of nitrogen in form of "free" nitrogen Total amount of loss of nitrogen Loss of nitrogen by retrogression Artificial sources of loss of nitrogen Amount of nitrogen removed in crops Losses of nitrogen incurred on the farm Loss in treatment of farmyard manure Nitrogen removed in milk Economics of the nitrogen question Loss of nitrogen-compounds in the arts Loss due to use of gunpowder Loss due to sewage disposal Our artificial nitrogen supply Nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia Peruvian guano Bones Other nitrogenous manures Oil-seeds and oilcakes Other imported sources of nitrogen Conclusion APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. NOTE I. Determination of the quantity of nitrogen supplied by rain, as ammonia and nitric acid, to an acre of land during one year II. Nitrogen in soils at various depths III Nitrogen as nitrates in cropped soils receiving no nitrogenous manures, in lb. per acre (Rothamsted soils) IV. Nitrogen as nitrates in Rothamsted soils V. Examples of increase of nitrogen in Rothamsted soils laid down in pastures VI. Loss by drainage of nitrates VII. Examples of decrease of nitrogen in Rothamsted soils VIII. Amount of drainage and nitrogen as nitrates in drainage-water from unmanured bare soil, 20 and 60 inches deep CHAPTER IV.—NITRIFICATION. Process of nitrification Occurrence of nitrates in the soil Nitre soils of India Saltpetre plantations Cause of nitrification Ferments effecting nitrification Appearance of nitrous organisms Nitric organism Difficulty in isolating them Nitrifying organisms do not require organic matter Conditions favourable for nitrification— Presence of food-constituents Presence of a salifiable base Only takes place in slightly alkaline solutions Action of gypsum on nitrification Presence of oxygen Temperature Presence of a sufficient quantity of moisture Absence of strong sunlight Nitrifying organisms destroyed by poisons Denitrification Denitrification also effected by bacteria Conditions favourable for denitrification
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Takes place in water-logged soils Distribution of the nitrifying organisms in the soil Depth down at which they occur Action of plant-roots in promoting nitrification Nature of substances capable of nitrification Rate at which nitrification takes place Nitrification takes place chiefly during summer Process goes on most quickly in fallow fields Laboratory experiments on rate of nitrification Certain portions of soil-nitrogen more easily nitrifiable than the rest Rate of nitrification deduced from field experiments Quantity of nitrates formed in the soils of fallow fields Position of nitrates depends on season Nitrates in drainage-waters Amount produced at different times of year Nitrification of manures Ammonia salts most easily nitrifiable Sulphate of ammonia the most easily nitrifiable ma nure Rate of nitrification of other manures Soils best suited for nitrification Absence of nitrification in forest-soils Important bearing of nitrification on agricultural practice Desirable to have soil covered with vegetation Permanent pasture most economical condition of soi l Nitrification and rotation of crops APPENDIX TO CHAPTER IV. NOTE I. Old theories of nitrification II. Nitrification takes place in solutions devoid of organic matter III. Oxidising power of micro-organisms in soils IV. Effect of urine on nitrification in soils V. Solution used by Professor Frankland in cultivating nitrificative micro-organisms VI. Experiments by Boussingault on rate of nitrification VII. Nitrogen as nitrates in Rothamsted soils after bare fallow in lb. per acre CHAPTER V.—POSITION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID IN AGRICULTURE. Occurrence of phosphoric acid in nature Mineral sources of phosphoric acid Apatite and phosphorite Coprolites Occurrence of phosphoric acid in guanos Universal occurrence in common rocks Occurrence in the soil Condition in which phosphoric acid occurs in the soil Occurrence in plants Occurrence in animals Sources of loss of phosphoric acid in agriculture Loss of phosphoric acid by drainage Artificial sources of loss of phosphoric acid Amount of phosphoric acid removed in milk Loss of phosphoric acid in treatment of farmyard manure Loss of phosphoric acid in sewage Sources of artificial gain of phosphoric acid APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V. NOTE
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I. Composition of apatite (Voelcker) II. Percentage of phosphoric acid in the commoner rocks CHAPTER VI.—POSITION OF POTASH IN AGRICULTURE. Potash of less importance than phosphoric acid Occurrence of potash Felspar and other potash minerals Stassfurt salts Occurrence of saltpetre Occurrence of potash in the soil Potash chiefly in insoluble condition in soils Percentage of potash in plants and plant-ash Occurrence of potash in animal tissue Sources of loss of potash Amount of potash removed in crops Amount of potash removed in milk Potash manures APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VI. NOTE I. Amount of potash in different minerals II. Quantity of potash obtained from 1000 lb. of different kinds of vegetation in the manufacture of potashes PART III.—MANURES. CHAPTER VII.—FARMYARD MANURE. Variation in its composition Made up of three classes of constituents Solid excreta— Its nature Difference in composition of the solid excreta of the different farm animals Causes of this difference Percentage of manurial ingredients in solid excreta of different animals Urine— Its nature Variation in its composition Causes of this variation Manurial value of the urine of the different farm animals Percentage of theorganic matter,nitrogen, andmineral substancesin the food, voided in the solid excreta and urine Comparison of manurial value of total excrements of the different farm animals Nature of changes undergone by food in process of digestion Litter— Its uses Strawas litter, and its qualifications Composition of different kinds of straw Loamas litter Peatas litter Comparison of properties ofpeat-mossandstraw Thebracken-fernas litter Dried leavesas litter Manures produced by the different animals— Horse-manure— Amount produced Its nature and composition Amount of straw used for litter Sources of loss on keeping
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How to prevent loss Use of "fixers," and the nature of their action Cow-manure— Amount produced Its nature and composition Amount of straw used as litter Sources of loss on keeping Advantages ofshort dung Pig-manure— Amount produced Its nature and composition Amount of straw used as litter Sheep-manure— Amount produced Nature and composition Amount of straw used as litter Methods of calculating amount of manure produced on the farm Fermentation of farmyard manure— Action ofmicro-organiclife in producing fermentation Two classes ofbacteriaactive in this work,aerobiesandanaerobies Conditions influencing fermentation— Temperature Openness to the air Dampness Composition of manure Products of fermentation Analyses of farmyard manure— Dr Voelcker's experiments Variation in composition Amounts ofmoisture,organic matter(containingnitrogen), and mineral matter Its manurial value compared withnitrate of soda,sulphate of ammonia, andsuperphosphate Comparison of fresh and rotten manure— The nature and amount of loss sustained in the process ofrotting Ought manure to be appliledfreshorrotten? Relative merits ofcoveredanduncoveredmanure-heaps Methods of application of farmyard manure to the field— Merits and demerits of the different methods Setting it out inheaps Spreading itbroadcast, and letting it lie Ploughing it in immediately Value and function of farmyard manure— As a supplier of the necessary elements of plant-food As a "universal" manure Proportion in whichnitrogen,phosphoric acid, andpotashare required by crops Proportion in which they are present in farmyard manure Farmyard manurepoor in nitrogen Lawes' and Gilbert's experiments How it may be best reinforced by the use of "artificials" Indirect value of farmyard manure as a supplier ofhumusto the soil Its influence on soil-texture Its influence in setting free inert fertilising ma tter in the soil Rate at which farmyard manure ought to be applied Lasting nature of farmyard manure Its economic value APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VII.
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NOTE I. Difference in amount of excreta voided for food consumed II. Solid excreta voided by sheep, oxen, and cows III. Urine voided by sheep, oxen, and cows IV. Percentage of food voided in the solid and liquid excrements V. Pig excrements VI. Manurial constituents in 1000 parts of ordinary foods VII. Analyses of stable-manure, made respectively with peat-moss litter and wheat-straw VIII. Analyses of bracken IX. Analyses of horse-manure X. The nature of the chemical reactions of ammonia "fixers" XI. Analyses of cow-manure XII. Composition of fresh and rotten farmyard manure XIII. Comparison of fresh and rotten manure XIV. Lord Kinnaird's experiments XV. Drainings of manure-heaps XVI. Amounts of potash and phosphoric acid removed by rotation from a Prussian morgen (.631 acre) XVII. Composition of farmyard manure (fresh) XVIII. The urine (quantity voided) CHAPTER VIII.—GUANO. Importance in agriculture Influence on British farming Influence of guano not wholly good Value of guano as a manure Origin and occurrence of guano Variation in composition of different guanos I. Nitrogenous guano— (aguano) Peruvian Different deposits of Peruvian guano Appearance, colour, and nature of Peruvian guano Composition of Peruvian guano (b) Other nitrogenous manures: Angamos, Ichaboe II. Phosphatic guanos— Occurrence of phosphatic guanos Inequality in composition of phosphatic guanos "Dissolved" phosphatic guano "Equalised" or "rectified" guano The action of phosphatic guanos as manures Proportion of fertilising constituents in guano Mode of application of guanos Quantity of guano to be used Adulteration of guano So-called guanos— Fish-guano Value of fish-guano Mean-meal guano Value of meat-meal guano Bat guano Pigeon and fowl dung APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VIII. NOTE I. Peruvian guano imported into United Kingdom, 1865-1893 II. Guano deposits of the world III. Composition of concretionary nodules IV. Table showing gradual deterioration of Peruvian guano, 1867-1881 V. Composition of different guanos
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