Fundamental Programming and Operation of Grinders - GA/GP/GU

Henry Wanyama

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7/12/2005 Okuma Factory Training for Fundamental Programming and Operation of Grinders - GA/GP/GU Course Code : GC701 Prerequisite : None Credits : 0 Course length : 4.5 days Class Size : 6 persons COURSE OBJECTIVES - Upon completion, the individual will be proficient in all basic skills necessary to allow the functional / productive operation of the machine tool, and associated safety practices. The course is aligned to providing the knowledge and skills required to translate the part drawing into a finished product.

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• Publié par: odwui
• Nombre de lectures: 10
• Langue: English

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ADOPTION OF DAIRY TECHNOLOGIES: LESSONS LEARNT FROM CASE STUDY IN WESTERN KENYA 1 23 4 S.N. Makokha , J. Karugia , S. Staaland.O.Kosura 1 KARI Kabete, P.O. Box 14733-00800, Nairobi, Kenya. 2 University of Nairobi, Department of Agricultural Economics, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi. Kenya. 3 ILRI, P.O. Box 30709-00100, Nairobi, Kenya. 4 University of Nairobi, Department of Agricultural Economics, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi. Kenya. Abstract The objective of the study was to analyse factors influencing adoption of dairy technologies in 7 districts in western Kenya. The binary probit model was used to analyse data from 1575 households across 7 districts in western Kenya. Not all the results from the study are presented here. The study looks at selected findings to share some of the lessons learnt regarding data analysis and the recommendations to be made. The results show that a thorough understanding of the study area is a prerequisite for any subsequent data analysis. The influence of land size, money capital, factor interactions and spatial factors highlights the precautions to be made during data analysis and gives useful recommendations from the research. The unfolding unique adoption process in the study area gives some lessons for other research elsewhere.

Background Western Kenya is home to some of the poorest people in Kenya. The area is bedevilled by low income from the existing farming enterprises and registers low levels of dairy development. This is in spite of indications that there is a potential for dairy development, and that dairy can reduce the level of poverty. An indication of low dairy development in Western and Nyanza Provinces is evident from the fact that it is a milk deficit area (Waithakaet al., 2002), and that private traders get milk from Nandi to sell to these areas.

In Western and Nyanza Provinces, low soil fertility (Jamaet al., 1998; Ojiemet al., 1998; Salasyaet al., 1998; Waithaka et al., 2002), coupled with low and unreliable income from cash crops suggest that alternative farming activities should be developed. The economic problem in the study area therefore was the existence of low and unreliable incomes from the existing crop and livestock enterprises, which has been associated with high poverty levels in Western Kenya. The research problem was low dairy development, in spite of the potential solution the improved dairy technologies offer to low farm incomes, and the positive agro-climatic and market conditions in most parts of the study area. The dairy technologies studied were; the improved dairy breed, Napier production and use of anti-helminthics.

Objective The objectives of the study were to describe the study area, establish the adoption patterns of dairy technologies, and determine the effect of farm, farmer, institutional and spatial factors on adoption of dairy technologies.

Methods used The study area consisted of 7 districts including Bungoma, Kakamega, Vihiga, Nandi, Kisii, Nyamira, and Rachuonyo. The data used for this study was obtained from a study by Staalet al., (1997), where single-visit personal interviews were done on a cross-section of 1575 households across the 7 districts by use of a questionnaire and from the GIS-derived variables. The database captured production and marketing aspects in dairy production. Population density, market access, and the land economic potential, the key spatial factors in determining milk production and marketing, were used for stratification of the sampling frame. The data set was used to give a general description of the area, identify adoption patterns, and highlight the socioeconomic and institutional characteristics of the area. Regression analysis by use of the probit model was used to explore relationships among variables relevant in the adoption of the dairy technologies.

Results The study recognises the fact that an insight of the study area and the technologies under study enables an understanding of the adoption pattern of a technology and the interrelationships of the variables. This has a bearing on the type of analytical model used. Any suspected cause-effect relationships were explored in the model by use of the simultaneous equation models to test for simultaneity. In this case the cause-effect relationships between income and adoption of the 3 technologies was unidirectional. This is because dairy development in this area is too low to have generated any income. This may have not been the case in another area where dairy farming is highly developed with substantial income. Failure to recognise these relationships leads to use of inappropriate models that would give biased results.

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An understanding of the characteristics of a technology will facilitate the identification of the variables to be used and the hypotheses stated. In the study, the understanding that dairy technologies are labour intensive, and that children do not contribute significantly to labour led to the use of the dependency ratio as a proxy for labour availability. A higher dependency ratio led to a lower probability of adoption of dairy technologies. This is contrary to a study in Tanzania (Kalibaet al., 1997), which found a positive correlation between cattle stall- feeding and availability of male children in the household because children helped in stall-feeding cattle.

The age of the household head may be relevant if the technology is long term. A short term technology like the dairy technologies render age irrelevant as shown in the results (Table 1). If the technology needs a lot of information, then the experience one has had with the technology, and not just general farming experience becomes more relevant.

The use of distance to a shopping centre as a proxy for market access depends on where the household sells the commodity. In the study area, most households sold milk in the neighbourhood, and about 90% of the households had no selling difficulties whenever they had milk for sale. In this case population density qualified as a proxy for access to milk markets, while distance to the nearest urban centre was a proxy for access to inputs.

In certain circumstances feed resources, and not land are a constraint to adoption. In this case a smaller land size meant households had to adopt Napier because it would give higher returns to land. These relationships would be different if feeds were entirely from outside the farm, where land would not be a relevant factor during adoption. The study used land size as a proxy for fodder availability, and hypothesised that households with more land (more natural pasture) reduced the probability of adopting new dairy technologies. From the results in Table 1 there was a decrease in the probability of adoption of Napier and improved dairy breeds with increase in land acreage.

It was also noted that whether the households are credit-constrained or not is important for subsequent recommendations. Households with non-farm income as the main source of income were wealthier than those that did not have non-farm income as the main source of income. Non-farm income, mostly wages, was received by 50% of the households, who ranked it as the main source of income. However the results showed that the households with non-farm income did not invest in dairy farming, meaning that adoption of dairy technologies is not credit constrained and that dairy farming is not a first priority for most households. In such cases a higher income may just lead to investment in more profitable off-farm enterprises (Shiferaw and Holden, 1998). Therefore researchers need to understand farmers’ priorities, educate farmers on the benefits of a technology in order to create a derived demand for credit. Unless there is derived demand for credit, additional liquidity may go to other investments and not to dairy farming.

Male household heads increased the probability of Napier production by 20%. However the interaction between gender and education showed that there was a negative correlation between Napier production and educated male household heads. This result means that educated male household heads would rather engage in other activities, probably off-farm. Neupane (2000) reported a similar result, where educated males had a negative influence on adoption of agro-forestry techniques in Nepal due to out-migration for employment.

There was no significant association between extension servicesper seand Napier production. However the interactive effect of extension and education was associated with an increase in the probability of Napier production. This gives an indication that education is useful in understanding extension messages.

Spatial variation of the predicted probabilities of the improved dairy breed adoption and Napier production, as shown in Figures 1 and 2 gives what is actually found in the study area. This confirms the reliability of the probit estimates obtained in the current study. This acts as a self-evaluating mechanism of the results. The spatial factors, namely the land economic potential, population density, and distance from the household to the nearest main road, were the primary determinants of dairy technology adoption.

Conclusions and Recommendations The association of income, land size and population density with adoption of dairy technologies unveils a unique adoption process in the study area. Credit was not identified as a constraint in the adoption process. Large land sizes are not associated with dairy development meaning that dairy is only for smallholder farmers in the study area. Increase in population density (which in the current study was a proxy for market access) was not associated with increase in the adoption of the improved dairy breeds. This shows that most of the households show limited market orientation in dairy farming. All these unique findings showed some underlying factors associated with dairy development, which necessitated a further insight into the study through valuation of cow attributes.

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In any adoption study, a thorough understanding of the study area and factor interrelations is a prerequisite for any adoption study and analysis. Conclusions from one particular adoption case study should not be applied to another case study even if the technology under study is the same. Literature search should only highlight the variables to be used but not to make study conclusions. In developing countries the socio-economic circumstances influence adoption of technologies to a great extent, and these factors are the ones that determine the unique adoption processes in any adoption study. These should therefore be understood and addressed for any intervention to be effective. Any adoption study in the developing countries should address these issues before selection of any model for analysis and subsequent interpretation of the results and conclusions. Table 1–The Estimated Probit models for the three Dairy Technologies  Marginaleffects of the independent variable Independent variable Improved dairy Napier Anti-helminthics breed inc (Monthly Income category of the 0.12 (0.11) ***0.09 (0.13) ***0.15 (0.11) *** household) 1=above KES 5,000, 0=below KES 5,000 gender (gender of the household head) 1=m ns 0.200(0.23)*** ns 0=Female Presentlandsize (land size in acres)-0.01(0.01) ***-0.01(0.01) ***ns Fodder10ago (Did you grow fodder 10 years 0.08 (0.14)*** ago?) 1=Yes, 0=No Dairy10 (Did you have dairy breeds 10 year 0.43(0.12) ***0.17 (0.11) *** ago?) 1=Yes, 0=No TNUrdtype3km (The distance by earth road ns -0.01(0.02)*ns from the household to the nearest urban cent by earth road) exttopicsolstck (received extension services 0.16 (0.19) **ns 0.21(0.19)*** dairy production?) 1=received, 0=Otherwis exttopicsolstck·education Ns0.1(0.02) ***ns Education (education level of the household Ns 0.01(0.03)*ns head gender·education Ns-0.01(0.03)* ns 2 Popn (Population density in persons per km Ns 0.0002(0.0002)*** -0.0001(0.1) ** 5 km radius) Land Economic potential0.54(0.34) ***0.90(0.55) ***ns dependency (ratio of pre-school and school- -0.03(0.04) **ns ns going household members to adults in the household) OfffarmYrank (Off-farm income status of th -0.08(0.10)** nsns household head) 1=Off-farm income as mai source of income, 0=Otherwise Hhage (age of the household head in years)Ns nsns Constant -1.63(0.46)*** -4.12(0.62) ***n observations 921927 921 Wald chi-square (14)217 215163 Prob > chi20.0000 0.00000.0000 * means significant at 10 % level, ** means significant at 5% level, *** means significant at 1% level Means interaction Note: values in brackets are standard errors

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Source: Compiled from SDP data with the use of the GIS Fig.1: A Map of Spatial Prediction of Probability of Adoption of IDBs, based on Parameter Estimates of GIS-derived variables by district

Source: Compiled from SDP data with the use of the GIS Fig. 2: A map of spatial prediction of probability of Napier Production based on Parameter Estimates of GIS-derived variables by district References Kaliba A., Featherstone A.M. and Norman D.W. (1997). A stall-feeding management for improved cattle in semiarid central Tanzania: Factors influencing adoption. Agricultural Economics, Volume 17, Issues 2-

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3, December 1997.Elsevier Science Publishers. 133-146.

Salasya B., Mwangi W. and Verkuijl H. (1998). An assessment of seed and fertilizer packages and the role of credit in smallholder maize production in western Kenya. In adoption of maize production technologies in northern Tanzania. Paper presented in the sixth Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, 21-25th, September, 1998. pp 371-374.

Shiferaw B. and Holden S.T. (1998). Resource degradation and adoption of land conservation technologies in the Ethiopian Highlands: A Case study in Andit Tid, North Shewa.. Elsevier Science Publishers.Journal of Agricultural Economics.18, Issue 3 (1998), 233-247).

Neupane R. (2000). Tree-crop integration in agricultural land, their impact on soil fertility and farm income and influencing factors for adoption under the subsistence farming systems of the middle hills Nepal. Paper presented at the workshop on the Evolution and Sustainability of Intermediate Systems between extractivism and plantations, 28 June 28-1 July, 2000 in Lofoten, Norway.

Ojiem J.O., Ransom J.K., Odongo M. and Okwuoso E.A. (1998). Agronomic and chemical characterization of potential green manure species in western Kenya. In Adoption of maize production technologies in northern Tanzania. Paper presented in the sixth Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, 21-25th, September, 1998. pp 210-217.

Waithaka M., Wokabi A. Nyaganga J., Ouma E., de Wolf T., Biwott J., Staal S.J., Ojowi M., Ogidi R., Njarro I. and Mudavadi P. (2002). Characterization of dairy systems in the western Kenya region. The Smallholder Dairy (R&D) Project.

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