Cenozoic Antarctic Glaciation: an integrated climate – ice sheet model approach. Dissertation vorgelegt von Luisa Cristini aus Verona (Italien) zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades Dr. rer. nat. Fachbereich Physik und Elektrotechnik, Universität Bremen 1. Gutachter Prof. Dr. G. Lohmann 2. Gutachter Prof. Dr. P. Lemke Eingereicht am: 27.04.2010 Datum des Kolloquiums: 7.06.2010 To the sweetness, to the patience, to the constancy, to the fate, to the truth, to the love. To Torben Luisa Cristini Cenozoic Antarctic Glaciation: an integrated climate-ice sheet model approach. Contents Abstract iii 1. Introduction 1 1.1. The Antarctic Ice Sheet 2 1.2. climate evolution 4 1.3. Potential forcing mechanisms for the Antarctic Glaciation 6 1.3.1. Opening of the Southern Ocean Gateways 6 1.3.2. Decline in atmospheric pCO 7 21.3.3. Favourable orbital configuration 8 1.4. Scientific questions 11 1.5. Thesis outline 13 2. Numerical models and methodology 17 2.1. Numerical modelling of the Antarctic Ice Sheet 18 2.2. The ice sheet model 20 2.3. The Earth System Model COSMOS 23 2.3.1. The atmospheric general circulation model ECHAM5 24 2.3.2.