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GREAT EMPIRES OF THE PAST
Empire of
the Mongols
MICHAEL BURGANGreat Empires of the Past: EMPIRE OF THE MONGOLS
Copyright © 2005 Michael Burgan
History Consultant: Christopher P. Atwood, professor of Mongolian History, Indiana
University; editor of Journal of the Mongolia Society
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from
the publisher. For information, contact:
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Burgan, Michael.
Empire of the Mongols / Michael Burgan.
p. cm. — (Great empires of the past)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-5563-7 (alk. paper)
1. Mongols—History—Juvenile literature. I. Title. II. Series.
DS19.B87 2004
951'.025—dc22 2004028479
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Photo and art credits: The Granger Collection, NY: 4, 10, 30, 46, 83; The Art Archive/British Library: 14; Scott
Darsney/Lonely Planet Images: 17; Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY: 23; Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France/Bridge-
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World Photos: 78; Olivier Cirendini/Lonely Planet Images: 80; Enzo & Paolo Ragazzini/Corbis: 90; The Art Archive/Turk-
ish and Islamic Art Museum Istanbul/Dagli Orti (A): 92; The Art Archive/Bodleian Library Oxford/The Bodleian Library
(Pococke 400 folio 99r): 94; Michel Setboun/Corbis: 97, 110; Nik Wheeler/Corbis: 100; Roger Wood/Corbis: 106; The Art
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This book is printed on acid-free paper.CONTENTS
Introduction 5
PART I HISTORY
CHAPTER 1 The Rise of the Mongol Empire 15
CHAPTER 2 Completing thol Empire 31
CHAPTER 3 Final Years of the Khanates 47
PART II SOCIETY AND CULTURE
CHAPTER 4 Mongol Government and Society 63
CHAPTER 5 Daily Life in the Mongol Empire 79
CHAPTER 6 Art, Science, and Culture in Mongol Lands 95
Epilogue 111
Time Line 120
Resources 121
Bibliography 123
Index 124Introduction
FOR SEVERAL THOUSAND YEARS WARRIORS ON HORSEBACK opposite
rode across central Asia, conquering nearby towns and cities. These The Great Khan
horsemen lived on the steppes, a flat, grassy region that extends from Asia Under the leadership of
into central Europe. The riders were nomads, moving from one grazing Chinggis Khan and his
descendants, the Mongolsspot to another with their herds of horses, sheep, camels, goats, and cattle.
built the largest empire everOver the centuries these nomads battled such people as the ancient
controlled by one family. This
Greeks, the Romans, the Persians, the Chinese, and the Arabs.
16th-century Persian
Of all the nomadic warriors of central Asia, the fiercest were the miniature, painted 300 years
Mongols. In the 13th century, starting in their homeland of Mongolia, just after Chinggis Khan died,
north of China, the Mongols spread out to the south and west. Under the attests to the lasting impact
he had.leadership of Chinggis Khan (c. 1162–1227) and his descendants, the Mon-
gols quickly built an empire that stretched from Korea to eastern Europe—
the largest continuous area of land ever controlled by one ruling family.
This empire soon split into four mini-empires. The last major rulers with
ties to the old Mongol empire were the Mughals of northern India, who
first governed in the 16th century. They traced family ties to Chinggis Khan
and the later Turko-Mongol ruler Timur (1336–1405), more commonly
known in English as Tamerlane.
By the time of the Mughals, the old Mongol culture had virtually dis-
appeared in most of the lands that once formed their empire. The Mongols
had adopted the ways of the people they conquered and blended into their
societies. Only in their homeland of Mongolia and a few other pockets of
the eastern steppes did the traditional ways endure. This willingness to
learn from conquered people and take on their culture was one of the
Mongols’ greatest strengths. They borrowed the best of what their former
enemies had to offer in politics, art, and social structure. The Mongols’
5EMPIRE OF THE MONGOLS
other major strength was their military might. They had great skills on
horseback and showed tremendous discipline on the battlefield. As they
conquered one land, they recruited new soldiers, then kept their ever-in-
creasing army moving into new territories.
WHAT ARE
CONNECTIONS? The World of the 12th Century
Throughout this book,
For several centuries before the rise of Chinggis Khan, the Mongols were
and all the books in the
just one of many nomadic tribes that lived on the Central Asian steppes.Great Empires of the Past
Different Turkic peoples ruled the steppes for a time, and the Chinese alsoseries, you will find
Connections boxes. They influenced the region. The tribes of Mongolia blended with the Turks, cre-
point out ideas, inven- ating what is sometimes called a Turko-Mongol culture. By the 12th cen-
tions, art, food, customs, tury, the tribes of Mongolia included the Tatars, the Mongols, the Kereyids,
and more from this
the Naimans, and the Merkits.
empire that are still part
These Mongolian tribal peoples lived on the landmass called Eura-of our world today.
sia. This continuous stretch of land includes the greater part of two conti-Nations and cultures in
remote history can seem nents: Europe and Asia. At its height in the second century, Rome
far removed from our dominated the western half of Eurasia. At about the same time, the Han
world, but these connec- Dynasty of China was the major power in the east. By the 12th century,
tions demonstrate how
both these empires were long gone, and a number of smaller empires and
our everyday lives have
kingdoms competed for influence in the region. been shaped by the
Rome’s empire had split in two even before its fall in the fifth cen-peoples of the past.
tury. Western Europe then broke into many different kingdoms and prin-
cipalities. The Byzantine Empire, which traced its political roots to the
Romans, ruled parts of Eastern Europe. In the Middle East, a single great
TURKS AND MONGOLS Islamic Empire had arisen in the seventh century. It then broke up into
Throughout this book, smaller dynastic empires. In South Asia, India had developed a great
Mongol is used to de- culture that was more than 3,000 years old. But by the 12th century, native
scribe the people of Mon-
Indian dynasties were losing power to outsiders. The northern part of the
golia during the time of
country eventually came under the control of Turks, who had embracedthe Mongol Empire. Mon-
Islam. Farther east in Eurasia, two competing Chinese dynasties had de-golian, when it is used,
refers to the modern-day veloped after the fall of the Han: the Song and the Jin. A number of smaller
people of Mongolia. In a empires, some Turkic, also competed for influence on the edges of China.
similar way, Turkic or Turk Throughout the world at this time, religion played a greater role in
refers to past peoples, not
politics and daily life than it usually does today. Religion inspired great art.
the current inhabitants of
It could also fuel bloody wars. But to believers it was most important formodern Turkey.
bringing release from the suffering of this world. The two halves of Europe
were divided by their religion, as each region claimed that its type of Chris-
tianity was the one true faith. Islam was dominant in the Arab world and
in Persia, which had once been the home of great empires. The Islamic in-
6INTRODUCTION
fluence spread into Central Asia,
where Turkic tribes lived. In India,
Hinduism and Buddhism (both na-
tive to India) were the main reli- Names of a Conqueror
gions until the Moslem conquests
The historians of the Mongols’ day wrote in a variety of lan-
began, while in China, Buddhism
guages, including Persian, Chinese, Arabic, and Turkic. Mod-
competed with Taoism (a native
ern European historians using these Asian sources translate
Chinese religion) as the main faith.
some of the Mongol names in different ways. Chinggi