GRAVITATION

William George Hooper

Description

GRAVITATION

Informations

• Publié par: olyjubuv
• Publié le: 08 décembre 2010
• Nombre de lectures: 144
• Langue: Français

Extrait

The Project Gutenberg eBook, Aether and Gravitation, by William George Hooper

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online atwww.gutenberg.org

Title: Aether and Gravitation

Author: William George Hooper

Release Date: February 22, 2008 [eBook #24667]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AETHER AND GRAVITATION***

E-text prepared by Barbara Tozier, Ronnie Sahlberg, Bill Tozier, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)

AETHER AND GRAVITATION

AETHER

AND

GRAVITATION

BY

WILLIAM GEORGE HOOPER, F.S.S.

LONDON

CHAPMAN AND HALL, L TD .

1903

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

The author in this work endeavours to solve the greatest scientific problem that has puzzled scientists for the past two hundred years. The question has arisen over and over again, since the discovery of universal gravitation by Sir Isaac Newton, as to what is the physical cause of the attraction of gravitation.

“Action at a distance” has long ceased to be recognized as a possible phenomenon, although up to the present, the medium and method of gravitational attraction have not yet been discovered.

It is, however, generally accepted by scientists, that the only possible medium which can give rise to the phenomena incidental to, and associated with the Law of Gravitation, must be the universal aether, which forms the common medium of all phenomena associated with light, heat, electricity and magnetism.

It is impossible, however, to reconcile gravitational phenomena with the present conception of the universal aether medium, and a new theory is therefore demanded, before the long-sought-for explanation will be forthcoming.

Professor Glazebrook definitely states the necessity for a new theory in his work on J. C. Maxwell, page 221, where he writes: “We are waiting for some one to give us a theory of the aether, which shall include the facts of electricity and magnetism, luminous radiation, and it may be gravitation.”

A new theory of the aether is also demanded in view of the recent experimental results of Professor Lebedew, and Nichols and Hull of America. It is logically impossible to reconcile a frictionless aether, with their results relative to the pressure of light waves.

In the following pages of this work the author has endeavoured to perfect a theory, which will bring aetherial physics more into harmony with modern observation and experiments; and by so doing, believes that he has found the key that will unlock the problem not only of the cause of universal gravitation, but also other problems of physical science. The author has taken Newton's Rules of Philosophy as his guide in the making of the new theory, as he believes that if any man knew anything of the rules of Philosophy, that man was Sir Isaac Newton. The first chapter therefore deals with the generally recognized rules which govern philosophical reasoning, the same being three in number; the fundamental rule being, that in making any hypothesis, the results of experience as obtained by observation and experiments must not be violated.

In applying the rules to the present theory of the aether, he found that the theory as at present recognized violated two of the most important rules of Philosophy, because, while aether is supposed to be matter, yet it failed to fulfil the primary property of all matter, that is, it is not subject to the Law of Gravitation. If aether is matter, then, to be strictly logical and philosophical, it must possess the properties of matter as revealed by observation and experiment.

Those properties are given in ChapterIII., where it is shown that they are atomicity, heaviness or weight, elasticity, density, inertia, and compressibility. To be strictly logical and philosophical, the author was compelled to postulate similar properties for the aether, or else his hypotheses would contravert the results of all experience.

The application of these properties to the aether will be found in ChapterIV., where the author has postulated atomicity, heaviness or weight, density, elasticity, inertia, and compressibility for the aether, and so brought the theory of the aether into perfect harmony with all observation and experiments relative to ordinary matter. It will be shown that Clerk Maxwell also definitely affirms the atomicity of the aether, while Tyndall and Huyghens also use the term “particles of aether” over and over again.

Moreover, in view of the most recent researches in electricity made by Sir

William Crookes and Professor J. J. Thomson, we are compelled to accept an atomic basis for electricity, and as Dr. Lodge, in hisModern Views of Electricity, states that “Aether is made up of positive and negative electricity,” then, unless we postulate atomicity for the aether, we have to suppose that it is possible for a non-atomic body (aether) to be made up of atoms or corpuscles, which conclusion is absurd, and therefore must be rejected as illogical and unphilosophical.

After postulating atomicity for the aether, we are then able to apply the Newtonian Law of Gravitation to it, which distinctly affirms that “every particle of matter attracts every other particle,” and so we arrive at Thomas Young's fourth hypothesis given in the Philosophical Transactions of 1802, where he asserts that “All material bodies have an attraction for the aetherial medium, by means of which it is accumulated within their substance, and for a small distance around them in a state of greater density.” He adds the significant remark that this hypothesis is opposed to that of Newton's. With an atomic and gravitative aether it is shown in ChapterIV. how the elasticity, density, and inertia of the medium are brought into harmony with all observation and experiments.

In the succeeding chapters the new theory is applied to the phenomena of heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, and the principles enunciated therein are then applied to solar and stellar phenomena.

One of the greatest stumbling-blocks to the discovery of the physical cause of gravitation, apart from the unphilosophical theory of the aether medium, lies in the fact that apparently the Law of Gravitation only recognizes a force of one kind. Dr. Lodge refers to this phase of the subject on page 39 of hisModern Views of Matterjust published. It is here where scientists have failed to solve the problem of universal gravitation, as there aretwoforces at work in the solar system and not one; that is, if we are to accept the results of up-to-date experiments in relation to radiant light and heat as performed by Professor Lebedew, and Nichols and Hull of America. Their experiments conclusively prove that light waves exert a pressure upon all bodies on which they fall, and by no reasoning can this pressure be resolved into an attractive force.

Herschel in hisLectures on Scientific Subjectsdefinitely refers to the existence of a repulsive force in the solar system, and asserts that it offers the most interesting prospect of any future discovery.

The author has therefore attacked the problem of the cause of gravitation, by trying to solve the problem of the cause of therepulsiveforce which has been experimentally demonstrated to exist by Professor Lebedew and others.

In his efforts to ascertain the physical cause of the Centrifugal Force, he has been assisted by an unknown and original essay written by an unknown writer over twenty years ago. That unknown writer was the author's father, who wrote an essay on theComplementary Law of Gravitation, and if it had not been for that essay, the present work would never have been attempted.

The main object of the author in ChaptersVI.,VII., andVIII., is to prove beyond the possibility of contradiction, from the phenomena of heat, light, and electricity, the existence oftwoforces in the solar system; and by so doing, to bring our philosophy of the aether medium, and all gravitational phenomena, into harmony with all observation and experiments, which at present is not the case. In seeking to do this he found that the new theory of the aether

harmonized with views given, by Faraday and Clerk Maxwell in relation to electric and magnetic phenomena, and by the new theory Maxwell's hypothesis of “Physical Lines of Force” receives a definite and physical basis. In Chapter X. the author endeavours to show what the Electro-Kinetic energy is, which term is used by Clerk Maxwell, the term being brought for the first time into harmony with our experience. The Electro-Magnetic Theory of Light also receives fresh light from the new theory of an atomic and gravitating aether.

In the succeeding chapters the theory is applied to Newton's Laws of Motion and Kepler's Laws, and is found to harmonize with all the results given by these laws. Such a result is a distinct advance on the application of a frictionless aether to solar and stellar phenomena, as it is impossible for Kepler's Laws to be reconciled in any way with our present theory of the aether.

In the concluding chapter on the unity of the universe, certain views are suggested as to the ultimate constitution of all matter, upon an aetherial basis, which hypothesis practically resolves itself into an electric basis for all matter. It is suggested that aether and electricity are one and the same medium, both being a form of matter, and both possessing exactly the same properties, viz. atomicity, weight, density, elasticity, inertia, and compressibility. This view of matter harmonizes with the most “Modern Views of Matter” as suggested by Sir Oliver Lodge in his Romanes Lecture 1903.

The author has accepted Newton's way of spelling “aether” as given in his work onOptics, and has given “aetherial” the same suffix as “material,” in order to differentiate the word from “ethereal,” which is too metaphysical a term for a material medium.

Nottingham,

ART. " " " " " " "

Sept. 1903.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PHILOSOPHY OF GRAVITATION

1. GRAVITATION 2. CAUSE OF GRAVITATION 3. NEWTON'S RULES OF PHILOSOPHY 4. FIRST RULE OF PHILOSOPHY 5. SECOND RULE OF PHILOSOPHY 6. THIRD RULE OF PHILOSOPHY 7. APPLICATION OF RULES TO GRAVITATION 8. ANALYSIS OF LAW OF GRAVITATION

PAGE 1 1 3 3 4 7 9 9

" " " " " " " " "

9. PRIMITIVE IMPULSE 10. CENTRIPETAL FORCE 11. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 12. NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION 13. FORCE 14. FIRST LAW OF MOTION 15. SECOND LAW OF MOTION 16. THIRD LAW OF MOTION 17. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER

CHAPTER II

PHILOSOPHY OF GRAVITATION--(continued)

ART.18. GRAVITATION ATTRACTION "19. UNIVERSALITY OF GRAVITATION "20. DIRECTION OF THE FORCES "21. PROPORTION OF THE FORCES "22. LAW OF INVERSE SQUARES "23. TERRESTRIAL GRAVITY "24. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE "25. KEPLER'S LAWS "26. FIRST LAW OF KEPLER "27. SECOND LAW OF KEPLER "28. THIRD LAW OF KEPLER

CHAPTER III

MATTER

ART.29. WHAT IS MATTER? "30. CONSERVATION OF MATTER "31. MATTER IS ATOMIC "32. WHAT IS AN ATOM? "33. THE ATOMIC THEORY "34. KINDS OF ATOMS "35. ELEMENTS OF MATTER "36. THREE KINDS OF MATTER "37. MATTER IS GRAVITATIVE "38. MATTER POSSESSES DENSITY "39. MATTER POSSESSES ELASTICITY

10 12 13 15 16 16 19 20 22

24 24 26 26 27 29 30 32 33 36 37

40 42 42 43 44 44 47 47 50 51 51

"

40. MATTER POSSESSES INERTIA

CHAPTER IV

AETHER

ART.42. AETHER IS MATTER "43. AETHER IS UNIVERSAL "44. AETHER IS ATOMIC "45. AETHER IS GRAVITATIVE "46. AETHER POSSESSES DENSITY "47. AETHER POSSESSES ELASTICITY "48. AETHER POSSESSES INERTIA "49. AETHER IS IMPRESSIBLE "50. AETHER AND ITS MOTIONS

CHAPTER V

ENERGY

ART.51. ENERGY "52. CONSERVATION OF ENERGY "53. TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY "54. POTENTIAL ENERGY "55. KINETIC ENERGY "56. ENERGY AND MOTION "57. CONSERVATION OF MOTION "58. TRANSFORMATION OF MOTION "59. MOTION AND WORK

CHAPTER VI

HEAT, A MODE OF MOTION

ART.60. HEAT, A MODE OF MOTION "61. HEAT AND MATTER "62. RADIATION AND ABSORPTION "63. HEAT IS A REPULSIVE MOTION "64. RADIANT HEAT "65. DIRECTION OF A RAY OF HEAT

52

54 58 59 64 71 74 76 78 80

83 84 86 87 89 91 92 93 95

98 100 104 107 109 111

" " " "

66. LAW OF INVERSE SQUARES 67. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 68. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 69. IDENTITY OF HEAT AND LIGHT

CHAPTER VII

LIGHT, A MODE OF MOTION

ART.70. LIGHT, A MODE OF MOTION "71. TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF LIGHT "72. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION "73. THE SOLAR SPECTRUM "74. DIRECTION OF A RAY OF LIGHT "75. INTENSITY OF LIGHT "76. VELOCITY OF LIGHT "77. DYNAMICAL VALUE OF LIGHT "78. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT

CHAPTER VIII

AETHER AND ELECTRICITY

ART.79. ELECTRICITY, A MODE OF MOTION "80. ELECTRIC FIELD "81. ELECTRIC INDUCTION "82. ELECTRIC ENERGY "83. ELECTRIC RADIATION "84. LAW OF INVERSE SQUARES "85. SECOND LAW OF ELECTRICITY

CHAPTER IX

AETHER AND MAGNETISM

ART.86. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM "87. THE EARTH A MAGNET "88. THE SUN AN ELECTRO-MAGNET "89. FARADAY'S LINES OF FORCE "90. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

112 114 116 119

122 130 135 139 144 145 148 150 155

162 166 174 179 182 184 186

192 195 199 203 206

" " " "

"

91. SOLAR MAGNETS 92. CAUSE OF ROTATION OF THE EARTH ON ITS AXIS 93. VORTEX MOTION 94. RELATIVE MOTION OF AETHER AND MATTER VIBRATIONS IN THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC THEORY 95. OF LIGHT

CHAPTER X

AETHER AND NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

ART.96. AETHER AND CENTRIFUGAL FORCE "97. AETHER AND CENTRIPETAL FORCE "98. AETHER AND NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION AETHER AND NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF "99. MOTION "100. AETHER AND NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION "101. WHY PLANETS REVOLVE FROM WEST TO EAST

CHAPTER XI

AETHER AND KEPLER'S LAWS

ART.102. AETHER AND KEPLER'S FIRST LAW "103. AETHER AND KEPLER'S SECOND LAW "104. AETHER AND KEPLER'S THIRD LAW "105. ORBITAL MOTION OF PLANETS "106. ECCENTRICITY OF THE MOON'S ORBIT "107. THE SUN AND KEPLER'S FIRST LAW "108. THE SUN AND KEPLER'S SECOND LAW "109. AETHER AND THE PLANE OF THE ECLIPTIC "110. AETHER AND THE CENTRIPETAL FORCE

CHAPTER XII

AETHER AND COMETS

ART.111. WHAT IS A COMET? "112. ORBITS OF COMETS "113. KINDS OF COMETS

211 219 221 224

228

232 236 239

244

251 253

256 260 263 266 268 270 274 277 282

291 293 296

" " "

114. PARTS OF A COMET 115. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE AND COMETS 116. FORMATION OF TAILS

CHAPTER XIII

AETHER AND STARRY WORLD

ART.117. STARRY WORLD "118. STARS AND KEPLER'S LAWS "119. AETHER AND NEBULAE "120. WHAT IS A NEBULA? "121. AETHER AND NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS "122. KINDS OF NEBULAE

CHAPTER XIV

AETHER AND THE UNIVERSE

ART.123. THE UNIVERSE "124. UNITY OF THE UNIVERSE "125. CONSTITUTION OF MATTER "126. QUOD ERAT FACIENDUM "127. GOD AND THE UNIVERSE

APPENDIX INDEX

AETHER AND GRAVITATION

CHAPTER I

PHILOSOPHY OF GRAVITATION

298 300 303

306 309 313 314 317 319

323 326 334 337 342

349 351

A RT . 1.Gravitation.--In the realm of Science, there exists a Force or Law that pervades and influences all Nature, and from the power of which, nothing, not even an atom, is free.

It holds together the component parts of each and every individual world, and in

[1]