Area Handbook for Romania

Eugene K.Giloane Keefe, James M. Moore, Neda A. Walpole, Eugene K. Keefe, William Giloane, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman

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• Publié par: hefep
• Publié le: 08 décembre 2010
• Nombre de lectures: 26
• Langue: English
• Poids de l'ouvrage: 1 Mo

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The Project Gutenberg eBook, Area Handbook for Romania, by Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M. Moore, and Neda A. Walpole

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Title: Area Handbook for Romania

Author: Eugene K. Keefe, Donald W. Bernier, Lyle E. Brenneman, William Giloane, James M. Moore, and Neda A. Walpole

Release Date: June 8, 2010 [eBook #32700]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1

***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AREA HANDBOOK FOR ROMANIA***

E-text prepared by Barbara Kosker, Juliet Sutherland, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)

AREA HANDBOOK

for

ROMANIA

Co-Authors Eugene K. Keefe Donald W. Bernier Lyle E. Brenneman William Giloane James M. Moore, Jr. Neda A. Walpole

Research and writing were completed February 1972 Published 1972

DA Pam 550-160

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-600095

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402—Price $2.75

FOREWORD

This volume is one of a series of handbooks prepare d by Foreign Area Studies (FAS) of The American University, designed to be useful to military and

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other personnel who need a convenient compilation of basic facts about the social, economic, political, and military instituti ons and practices of various countries. The emphasis is on objective description of the nation's present society and the kinds of possible or probable changes that might be expected in the future. The handbook seeks to present as ful l and as balanced an integrated exposition as limitations on space and research time permit. It was compiled from information available in openly published material. An extensive bibliography is provided to permit recourse to other published sources for more detailed information. There has been no attempt to express any specific point of view or to make policy recommendations. The contents of the handbook represent the work of the authors and FAS and do no t represent the official view of the United States government.

An effort has been made to make the handbook as com prehensive as possible. It can be expected, however, that the material, interpretations, and conclusions are subject to modification in the ligh t of new information and developments. Such corrections, additions, and sugg estions for factual, interpretive, or other change as readers may have will be welcomed for use in future revisions. Comments may be addressed to:

PREFACE

The Director Foreign Area Studies The American University 5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20016

The former Kingdom of Romania emerged from the post-World War II chaos as the Romanian People's Republic, a communist satellite so closely aligned to the policies of the Soviet Union that it often a ppeared to be ruled from Moscow. During the 1950s, however, Romania cautiously began seeking to loosen its ties to Moscow and to assert some measure of autonomy. The widening Sino-Soviet rift of the early 1960s provided an atmosphere of tension among communist states that the Romanians used to their own advantage by remaining neutral in the communist struggle and by seeking greater contacts with noncommunist states. In internal affairs, the Romanian regime maintained a rigid hold on all elements of the society. In 196 5 the regime changed the name of the country to the Socialist Republic of Romania and proclaimed that it was well on the way toward communism. In the early 1970s Romania remains a member of the Soviet-led military and economic al liances but has become known as the most independent member.

The changes wrought by the Communists during a quarter century in power are numerous and far reaching. Despite the desires of the Soviet leaders that

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Romania remain predominantly agricultural, the new Romanian leadership was determined to industrialize. Enforced socialization and concurrent industrialization brought a host of problems in the political, social, and economic life of the country. Reorientation of the society and the political structure was brought about by force when necessary, but the restructuring of the economy within the framework of the avowed Marx ist-Leninist ideology proved to be more difficult and led to problems that had still not been overcome by early 1972.

This handbook attempts to describe the social, political, and economic bases of Romanian society and, more particularly, how the se bases have been affected by Romania's independent stance within the alliances of Eastern European communist countries. The authors of the handbook have tried to be objective in order to provide a comprehensive expos ition of the dominant aspects of Romanian life in the early 1970s. Often hampered by a lack of credible statistical information as well as an over abundance of biased propaganda, the authors have attempted to piece tog ether sufficient factual material to present an accurate appraisal and an in dication of observable trends.

English usage followsWebster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Place names used in the text are those approved by the Un ited States Board on Geographic Names. Tonnages are given in the metric system, but for other measurements standard United States terminology has been used. The use of Romanian words has been held to a minimum and, where used, they have been explained in the text and in the Glossary, whi ch is appended for the reader's convenience. The acronym PCR, derived from Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party), is used throughout the book and is fully explained in the Glossary.

COUNTRY SUMMARY

1. COUNTRY: Officially redesignated the Socialist R epublic of Romania under Constitution of 1965. Established originally as the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, was converted into the Romanian People's R epublic in 1948 by communist party with Soviet backing.

2. GOVERNMENT: Constitution of 1965 provides for a unicameral legislature and a collegial executive known as the Council of State. Romanian Communist Party controls elections and runs the government at all levels. Top party officials concurrently occupy top governmental offices. Ultimate political power rests in the party hierarchy, particularly in the p erson of the party general secretary who, since 1967, has also been head of state.

3. SIZE AND LOCATION: Area of over 91,700 square miles. In southeastern Europe, shares 1,975 miles of demarcated and undisputed land borders with

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Europe,shares1,975milesofdemarcatedandundisputedlandborderswith Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and the Soviet Union . With 150 miles of shoreline, shares riparian rights on Black Sea with Turkey, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union.

4. TOPOGRAPHY: Terrain is generally irregular. The Transylvania basin in the northwest occupies about one-third of the country and is separated from the plains and lowlands of Walachia, Dobruja, and Moldavia to the south and east by the curving course of the Carpathian Mountains and the Transylvanian Alps, which cut across the central portion of the country.

5. CLIMATE: Generally Eastern European Continental, dominated by high pressure systems from European Soviet Union and north-central Asia. Little variation or moderation experienced in the prevaili ng long cold winters and short hot summers.

6. POPULATION: Almost 20.6 million in 1971; annual growth rate of 1.3 percent, among the highest in Eastern Europe. Density more than 224 persons per square mile. Largest minority is Hungarian, com prising 8 percent of population, followed by German, with 2 percent. 7. LANGUAGE: Romanian, the official language, spoke n by virtually all elements of the population. Hungarian and German al so recognized and utilized in areas of large minority concentrations. 8. LABOR: Working population employed by the state in 1969 numbered about 5 million. About 40 percent were employed in industry; about 51 percent, in agriculture. Women constituted about 43 percent of the industrial and 57.5 percent of the collective farm labor forces.

9. RELIGION: Freedom of worship is guaranteed by Constitution, but state controls all church activities. About two-thirds of population belong to Romanian Orthodox Church. Importance of Roman Catholic and Protestant minorities enhanced because of their identity with Hungarian and German ethnic groups.

10. EDUCATION: Restructured in 1948 into a highly centralized system with a broad base, standardized curricula, mandatory attendance through tenth grade, and heavy emphasis on vocational and technical subjects above the elementary level. Political indoctrination permeates entire system.

11. JUSTICE: Theoretically independent, the three-level court system (local, district, and Supreme Court) functions as part of e xecutive branch. Military tribunals operate as part of system under Supreme Court.

12. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS: Thirty-nine counties, each subdivided into varying numbers of communes, villages, and mun icipalities. Bucharest administered as an independent political entity. Go vernmental functioning ostensibly decentralized, but policy and control exercised by higher state and party organs.

13. ECONOMY: Government controlled, with basic five-year plans patterned on Soviet model. Development hampered by scarcity o f raw materials and manufacturing equipment and by insufficient number of experienced workers and managers.

14. AGRICULTURE: About 63 percent of land is agricu ltural; of this, 65 percent under cultivation. Foodproduction adeqbutuate for domestic needs,

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exports limited because of insufficient investment and lack of labor incentives.

15. INDUSTRY: Rapid growth since 1950 stimulated by massive inputs of capital, labor, and imports of modern machinery and technology. Labor productivity and quality of manufactured products have improved but remain low.

16. FOREIGN ECONOMIC RELATIONS: Foreign trade is state monopoly and is conducted primarily with Soviet Union and East European communist countries. Balance of trade generally negative, reflecting imports of high-quality machinery from West necessary for industrial advancement. Exports limited to light machinery, foodstuffs, and some consumer goods.

17. FINANCE: Monetary unit is the nonconvertible leu. The to tourist rates of about 16 lei per US$1. Currency and foreign exchange are state controlled, administered through the National Bank.

18. COMMUNICATIONS: All information media party or state owned and controlled. Press and radio more extensively developed than television, but all function as parts of ideological and political indoctrination system.

19. RAILROADS: Important freight and passenger carrier. About 6,900 miles of trunkline in operation, almost all standard gauge. About 100 miles electrified, and rest of system converting to use of diesel locomotives. 20. HIGHWAYS: Of 47,800 total road mileage, about 6,600 miles nationally maintained as principal operating network. System supplanting railroads as major short-haul carrier of freight and passengers. 21. INLAND WATERWAYS: About 1,500 miles of principal rivers and canals are navigable. Water transport has minor role as a cargo carrier.

22. AIRWAYS: Romanian Air Transport, the state-owned airline, operates domestic service to twelve principal cities and to about twenty national capitals in Europe and the Middle East.

23. PIPELINES: Largest network serves oilfields and moves most liquid petroleum and refined products to refineries and ports. Natural gas lines exist, but mountainous terrain limits general distribution. 24. MERCHANT MARINE: Small in number but operates modern ships and equipment. Transport limited principally to truck cargo and freight. 25. ARMED FORCES: In 1972 consisted of about 200,000 men organized into ground, naval, air, air defense, and frontier forces, all administered by a single ministry. All elements operate as part of army, which is largest single component.

26. SECURITY: Security forces, nationally organized and centrally controlled by Ministry of Internal Affairs, consist of ordinary police (militia) and security troops, which perform counter-espionage and counter-subversive functions.

27. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the United Nations and a number of its specialized agencies. Member of the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).

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ROMANIA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD PREFACE COUNTRY SUMMARY SECTION I. SOCIAL Chapter General Character of the Society 1. 2. Historical Setting  Early Origin—Formation of the Principalities —Western Influences—National Independence  —World War I—Interwar Years, 1918-40—World War II— Communist Seizure of Power—The Communist State 3. Physical Environment and Population  Natural Features and Resources —Boundaries and Political Subdivisions —Population—Living Conditions —Transportation 4. Social System and Values  Ethnic Composition—Social Structure —Social Values 5. Religion  Church-State Relations—The Romanian Orthodox Church—The Roman Catholic Church —Protestant Churches—Other Religions and Churches 6. Education  Background—Educational Reforms Since 1948— Literacy—The Educational System—Education of Minorities 7. Artistic and Intellectual Expression  The Role of the Arts Under Communism—Art,  Sculpture, and Architecture—Music—Theater

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1

9

29

49

65

73

91

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—Films—Literature—Scholarship and Research SECTION II. POLITICAL 8. Governmental System  The Constitutional System—The Structure  and Functioning of the Government—The Electoral System 9. Political Dynamics and Values  Major Political Developments, 1965 to 1970  —Political Organizations—Party Policies and Programs—Political Values and Attitudes 10. Foreign Relations  Determinants of Foreign Policy—Conduct of Foreign Affairs—International Relations 11. Public Information  Government and Freedom of Information —The Press—Radio and Television—Book Publishing—Libraries—Films—Informal Information Media SECTION III. NATIONAL SECURITY 12. Public Order and Internal Security  Internal Security—Public Order—Crime and the Penal System 13. Armed Forces  Historical Background—Governmental and Party Control Over the Armed Forces —Organization and Mission—Foreign Military Relations—Manpower, Training, and Support —The Military Establishment and the National Economy SECTION IV. ECONOMIC 14. Character and Structure of the Economy  Organization—Structure and Growth  —Planning—Price System—Budget—Banking —Currency—Foreign Trade 15. Agriculture  Agricultural Regions—Land Use  —Organization—Farm Labor—Investment and Credit—Production 16. Industry  Natural Resources—Electric Power  —Organization—Labor—Investment and Construction—Production BIBLIOGRAPHY GLOSSARY INDEX

109

129

155

175

193

211

229

253

275

291 305 307

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Figure

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Romania Romania, Historic Provinces Topography of Romania Romanian Transportation System Romania, Distribution of Ethnic Groups, 1966 Romania, Structure of Education, 1972 Structure of the Government of Romania, 1971 Romania, Organization of the Council of Ministers, 1971 Organization of the Romanian Communist Party, 1972 Romania, Organization of the Armed Forces, 1972

LIST OF TABLES

Page xiv 10 31 44

51

81

115

120

138

214

TablePage 1 Romania, Population Structure, by Age and Sex, 1971 Estimate40 2 Use of Transportation Facilities in Romania, 1950, 1960, and 196945 3 Principal Romanian Daily Newspapers, 1971179 4 National Income (Net Material Product) of Romania by Economic Sector, 1960, 1967, and 1970232 5 Gross National Product of Romania, by Sector of Origin, 1960 and 1967233

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6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Foreign Trade of Romania, by Groups of Countries, 1960 and 1969 Land Use in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-70 Cultivated Acreage in Romania, by Major Crops, 1960 and 1969 Agricultural Land in Romania, by Type of Ownership, 1969 Production of Major Crops in Romania, Selected years, 1960-69 Output of Livestock Products in Romania, Selected Years, 1960-69 Crop Production and Livestrock Products in Romania, by Type of Farm, 1969 Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960 and 1969

Figure 1. Romania.

SECTION I. SOCIAL

CHAPTER 1

250

255

256

258

272

272

274

288

GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE SOCIETY

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The Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman—PCR) is the leading force in the political, economic, and social life of Romania. The party general secretary, Nicolae Ceausescu, in early 1972 celebrated his seventh anniversary in power, displaying complete confidence in the stability of his regime. Ceausescu serves concurrently as the president of his country, which is known officially as the Socialist Republic of Romania. Although tied militarily and economically to the Soviet Union through membership in the Warsaw Treaty Organization (Warsaw Pact) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), Romania since the mid-1950s h as pursued an independent course in both its internal development and its foreign relations.

In April 1964, in furtherance of its independent stance, the PCR Central Committee issued a statement concerning the rights of all communist parties and socialist states to choose their own methods of development according to "the concrete historic conditions prevailing in the ir own countries." This statement, which has been referred to as Romania's declaration of independence, was directed primarily to the leaders of the Soviet Union and, in effect, was a warning to them to cease their interference in the domestic and foreign affairs of Romania. It was a declaration of sovereign rights and self- determination by which the Romanian Communists asserted that they were the masters of their country's destiny rather than a puppet state to be manipulated by and for outside interests.

The reasons that the Soviet Union did not crack dow n on its former subservient satellite are both obscure and complex. One factor operating in favor of the Romanians was the rift that had develo ped between the two communist giants—the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The rift had become very deep, and the Soviets were striving to gain adherents to their position in the struggle and probably were reluctant to use force against Romania because of the danger of alienating other communist parties. It is probable that dissension within the Moscow leadership, which shortly ended the career of Premier Nikita Khrushchev, also inhib ited action against Romania.

In their drive to establish rights of autonomy and free choice for their country, Romania's leaders have not tried to withdraw from the Soviet alliances, nor have they changed the basic nature of their communi st government. Their actions have demonstrated that their goals have been to lessen the influence of the Soviet Union in Romania's domestic and foreign affairs, at the same time they themselves maintained an absolute, single-party monopoly of power.

After issuing their declaration of independence, th e Romanians in subsequent years earned a reputation for opposition to the Soviet Union within the Warsaw Pact and COMECON as well as in the conduct of their relations with noncommunist states. Pursuit of these goals ha s sometimes led the Romanians into situations that have been considered dangerous by outside observers, and the leadership has often expressed fears of Soviet retaliation against Romania's independent line.

One obvious result of the independent status has been the resurgence of Romanian nationalism. Ceausescu, when he talks abou t "Romania for the Romanians," even though he may be speaking in the c ontext of building a communist society, receives widepopular support and, at times, appears to

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