Epic and Romance - Essays on Medieval Literature

W. P. Ker

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• Publié par: edryo
• Publié le: 08 décembre 2010
• Nombre de lectures: 30
• Langue: English

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The Project Gutenberg eBook, Epic and Romance, by W. P. Ker

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EPIC AND ROMANCE

ESSAYS ON MEDIEVAL LITERATURE BY W. P. KER

FELLOW OF ALL SOULS COLLEGE, OXFORD PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON

Contents

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON 1931

COPYRIGHT First Edition (8vo)1896 Second Edition (Eversley Series)1908 Reprinted (Crown 8vo)1922, 1926, 1931

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BYR. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, EDINBURGH

PREFACE

T HESE essays are intended as a general description of some of the principal forms of narrative literature in the Middle Ages, and as a review of some of the more interesting works in each period. It is hardly necessary to say that the conclusion is one "in which nothing is concluded," and that whole tracts of literature have been barely touched on—the English metrical romances, the Middle High German poems, the ballads, Northern and Southern—which would require to be considered in any systematic treatment of this part of history.

Many serious difficulties have been evaded (in Finnesburh , more particularly), and many things have been taken for granted, too easily. My apology must be that there seemed to be certain results available for criticism, apart from the more strict and scientific procedure which is required to solve the more difficult problems of Beowulf , or of the old Northern or the old French poetry. It is hoped that something may be gained by a less minute and exacting consideration of the whole field, and by an attempt to bring the more distant and dissociated parts of the subject into relation with one another, in one view. Some of these notes have been already used, in a course of three lectures at the Royal Institution, in March 1892, on "the Progress of Romance in the Middle Ages," and in lectures given at University College and elsewhere. The plot of the Dutch romance of Walewein was discussed in a paper submitted to the Folk-Lore Society two years ago, and published in the journal of the Society ( Folk-Lore , vol. v. p. 121). I am greatly indebted to my friend Mr. Paget Toynbee for his help in reading the proofs. I cannot put out on this venture without acknowledgment of my obligation to two scholars, who have had nothing to do with my employment of all that I have borrowed from them, the Oxford editors of the Old Northern Poetry, Dr. Gudbrand Vigfusson and Mr. York Powell. I have still to learn what Mr. York Powell thinks of these discourses. What Gudbrand Vigfusson would have thought I cannot guess, but I am glad to remember the wise goodwill which he was always ready to give, with so much else from the resources of his learning and his judgment, to those who applied to him for advice. W. P. KER.

L ONDON , 4th November 1896 .

POSTSCRIPT

T HIS book is now reprinted without addition or change, except in a few small details. If it had to be written over again, many things, no doubt, would be expressed in a different way. For example, after some time happily spent in reading the Danish and other ballads, I am inclined to make rather less of the interval between the ballads and the earlier heroic poems, and I have learned (especially from Dr. Axel Olrik) that the Danish ballads do not belong originally to simple rustic people, but to the Danish gentry in the Middle Ages. Also the comparison of Sturla's Icelandic and Norwegian histories, though it still seems to me right in the main, is driven a little too far; it hardly does enough justice to the beauty of the Life of Hacon  ( Hákonar Saga ), especially in the part dealing with the rivalry of the King and his father-in-law Duke Skule. The critical problems with regard to the writings of Sturla are more difficult than I imagined, and I am glad to have this opportunity of referring, with admiration, to the work of my friend Dr. Björn Magnússon Olsen on the Sturlunga Saga  (in Safn til Sögu Islands , iii. pp. 193-510, Copenhagen, 1897). Though I am unable to go further into that debatable ground, I must not pass over Dr. Olsen's argument showing that the life of the original Sturla of Hvamm ( v. inf.  pp.253-256) was written by Snorri himself; the story of the alarm and pursuit (p. 255) came from the recollections of Gudny, Snorri's mother.

In the Chansons de Geste a great discovery has been made since my essay was written; the Chançun de Willame , an earlier and ruder version of the epic of Aliscans , has been printed by the unknown possessor of the manuscript, and generously given to a number of students who have good reason to be grateful to him for his liberality. There are some notes on the poem in Romania (vols. xxxii. and xxxiv.) by M. Paul Meyer and Mr. Raymond Weeks, and it has been used byMr. Andrew Langin illustration of Homer and his age. It is the sort

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of thing that the Greeks willingly let die; a rough draught of an epic poem, in many ways more barbarous than the other extant chansons de geste , but full of vigour, and notable (like le Roi Gormond , another of the older epics) for its refrain and other lyrical passages, very like the manner of the ballads. The Chançun de Willame , it may be observed, is not very different from Aliscans regard to Rainouart, the humorous with gigantic helper of William of Orange. One would not have been surprised if it had been otherwise, if Rainouart had been first introduced by the later composer, with a view to "comic relief" or some such additional variety for his tale. But it is not so; Rainouart, it appears, has a good right to his place by the side of William. The grotesque element in French epic is found very early, e.g. in the Pilgrimage of Charlemagne , and is not to be reckoned among the signs of decadence.

There ought to be a reference, onp. 298below, to M. Joseph Bédier's papers in the Revue Historique (xcv. and xcvii.) on Raoul de Cambrai . M. Bédier's Légendes épiques , not yet published at this time of writing, will soon be in the hands of his expectant readers.

I am deeply indebted to many friends—first of all to York Powell—for innumerable good things spoken and written about these studies. My reviewers, in spite of all differences of opinion, have put me under strong obligations to them for their fairness and consideration. Particularly, I have to offer my most sincere acknowledgments to Dr. Andreas Heusler of Berlin for the honour he has done my book in his Lied und Epos (1905), and not less for the help that he has given, in this and other of his writings, towards the be tter understanding of the old poems and their history.

O XFORD , 25th Jan. 1908 .

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I T H A HE EROIC GE

Epic and Romance: the two great orders of medieval narrative Epic , of the "heroic age," preceding Romance of the "age of chivalry" The heroic age represented in three kinds of literature—Teutonic Epic, French Epic, and the Icelandic Sagas Conditions of Life in an "heroic age" Homer and the Northern poets Homeric passages in Beowulf and in the Song of Maldon Progress of poetry in the heroic age Growth of Epic, distinct in character, but generally incomplete, among the Teutonic nations

II E PICAND R OMANCE

The complex nature of Epic No kind or aspect of life that may not be included This freedom due to the dramatic quality of true ( e.g. Homeric) Epic as explained by Aristotle Epic does not require a magnificent ideal subject such as those of the artificial epic ( Aeneid , Gerusalemme Liberata , Paradise Lost ) The Iliad unlike these poems in its treatment of "ideal" motives (patriotism, etc.) True Epic begins with a dramatic plot and characters The Epic of the Northern heroic age is sound in its dramatic conception

W. P. K.

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and does not depend on impersonal ideals (with exceptions, in the Chansons de geste ) The German heroes in history and epic (Ermanaric, Attila, Theodoric) Relations of Epic to historical fact The epic poet is free in the conduct of his story but his story and personages must belong to his own people Nature of Epic brought out by contrast with secondary narrative poems, where the subject is not national This secondary kind of poem may be excellent, but is always different in character from native Epic Disputes of academic critics about the "Epic Poem" Tasso's defence of Romance. Pedantic attempts to restrict the compass of Epic Bossu on Phaeacia Epic, as the most comprehensive kind of poetry, includes Romance as one of its elements but needs a strong dramatic imagination to keep Romance under control

III R M OMANTIC YTHOLOGY

Mythology not required in the greatest scenes in Homer Myths and popular fancies may be a hindrance to the epic poet, but he is compelled to make some use of them He criticises and selects, and allows the characters of the gods to be modified in relation to the human characters

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35 36 37 Early humanism and reflexion on myth—two processes: (1) rejection of the grosser myths; (2) refinement 40 40 41 42 43 43 44 45 46 47 47 48 49

of myth through poetry Two ways of refining myth in poetry—(1) by turning it into mere fancy, and the more ludicrous things into comedy; (2) by finding an imaginative or an ethical meaning in it Instances in Icelandic literature— Lokasenna Snorri Sturluson, his ironical method in the Edda The old gods rescued from clerical persecution Imaginative treatment of the graver myths—the death of Balder; the Doom of the Gods Difficulties in the attainment of poetical self-command Medieval confusion and distraction Premature "culture" Depreciation of native work in comparison with ancient literature and with theology An Icelandic gentleman's library The whalebone casket Epic not wholly stifled by "useful knowledge"

IV T T S —T E —F E —T I H HE HREE CHOOLS EUTONIC PIC RENCH PIC HE CELANDIC ISTORIES

Early failure of Epic among the Continental Germans Old English Epic invaded by Romance (Lives of Saints, etc.) Old Northern (Icelandic) poetry full of romantic mythology French Epic and Romance contrasted Feudalism in the old French Epic ( Chansons de Geste ) not unlike the prefeudal "heroic age" But the Chansons de Geste are in many ways "romantic" Comparison of the English Song of Byrhtnoth ( Maldon , A . D . 991) with the Chanson de Roland Severity and restraint of Byrhtnoth Mystery and pathos of Roland Iceland and the German heroic age The Icelandic paradox—old-fashioned politics together with clear understanding

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Icelandic prose literature—its subject, the anarchy of the heroic age; its methods, clear and positive The Icelandic histories, in prose, complete the development of the early Teutonic Epic poetry

CHAPTER II THE TEUTONIC EPIC I T T C HE RAGIC ONCEPTION

Early German poetry One of the first things certain about it is that it knew the meaning of tragic situations The Death of Ermanaric in Jordanes The story of Alboin in Paulus Diaconus Tragic plots in the extant poems The Death of Ermanaric in the "Poetic Edda" ( Hamðismál ) Some of the Northern poems show the tragic conception modified by romantic motives, yet without loss of the tragic purport— Helgi and Sigrun Similar harmony of motives in the Waking of Angantyr Whatever may be wanting, the heroic poetry had no want of tragic plots—the "fables" are sound Value of the abstract plot (Aristotle)

II S P CALE OF THE OEMS

List of extant poems and fragments in one or other of the older Teutonic languages (German, English, and Northern) in unrhymed alliterative verse Small amount of the extant poetry Supplemented in various ways 1. T HE W ESTERN G ROUP (German and English) Amount of story contained in the several poems, and scale of treatment Hildebrand , a short story Finnesburh , (1) the Lambeth fragment (Hickes); and (2) the abstract of the story in Beowulf Finnesburh , a story of (1) wrong and (2) vengeance, like the story of the death of Attila, or of the betrayal of Roland Uncertainty as to the compass of the Finnesburh poem (Lambeth) in its original complete form Waldere , two fragments: the story of Walter of Aquitaine preserved in the Latin Waltharius Plot of Waltharius Place of the Waldere fragments in the story, and probable compass of the whole poem Scale of Maldon and of Beowulf General resemblance in the themes of these poems—unity of action Development of style, and not neglect of unity nor multiplication of contents, accounts for the difference of length between earlier and later poems Progress of Epic in England—unlike the history of Icelandic poetry 2. T HE N ORTHERN G ROUP The contents of the so-called "Elder Edda" ( i.e.Codex Regius 2365, 4to Havn .) to what extent Epic Notes on the contents of the poems, to show their scale; the Lay of Weland Different plan in the Lays of Thor , Þrymskviða and Hymiskviða

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The Helgi Poems—complications of the text Three separate stories— Helgi Hundingsbane and Sigrun Helgi Hiorvardsson and Swava Helgi and Kara (lost) The story of the Volsungs—the long Lay of Brynhild contains the whole story in abstract giving the chief place to the character of Brynhild The Hell-ride of Brynhild The fragmentary Lay of Brynhild ( Brot af Sigurðarkviðu )

95 95 98 99 100 100 101 102 103 Poems on the death of Attila—the Lay of Attila ( Atlakviða ), and the Greenland Poem of Attila ( Atlamá 105 105 107 109 109 111 111 111 111 112 112 114 114 115 116 117 Many of the Teutonic epic remains may look like the "short lays" of the agglutinative epic theory; but this 117 118 119 121 122

l ) Proportions of the story A third version of the story in the Lament of Oddrun ( Oddrúnargrátr ) The Death of Ermanaric ( Hamðismál ) The Northern idylls of the heroines (Oddrun, Gudrun)—the Old Lay of Gudrun , or Gudrun's story to Theodoric The Lay of Gudrun ( Guðrúnarkviða )—Gudrun's sorrow for Sigurd The refrain Gudrun's Chain of Woe ( Tregrof Guðrúnar ) The Ordeal of Gudrun , an episodic lay Poems in dialogue, without narrative— (1) Dialogues in the common epic measure— Balder's Doom , Dialogues of Sigurd , Angantyr —explanations in prose, between the dialogues (2) Dialogues in the gnomic or elegiac measure: ( a ) vituperative debates— Lokasenna , Harbarzlióð (in irregular verse), Atli and Rimgerd ( b ) Dialogues implying action— The Wooing of Frey ( Skírnismál ) Svipdag and Menglad ( Grógaldr , Fiölsvinnsmál ) The Volsung dialogues The Western and Northern poems compared, with respect to their scale The old English poems ( Beowulf , Waldere ), in scale, midway between the Northern poems and Homer

is illusion Two kinds of story in Teutonic Epic—(1) episodic, i.e. representing a single action ( Hildebrand , etc.); (2) summary, i.e. giving the whole of a long story in abstract, with details of one part of it ( Weland , etc.) The second class is unfit for agglutination Also the first, when it is looked into The Teutonic Lays are too individual to be conveniently fused into larger masses of narrative

III E B P PIC AND ALLAD OETRY

Many of the old epic lays are on the scale of popular ballads Their style is different As may be proved where later ballads have taken up the epic subjects The Danish ballads of Ungen Sveidal ( Svipdag and Menglad ) and of Sivard ( Sigurd and Brynhild ) The early epic poetry, unlike the ballads, was ambitious and capable of progress

Rhetorical art of the alliterative verse English and Norse

IV T S P HE TYLE OF THE OEMS

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Different besetting temptations in England and the North English tameness; Norse emphasis and false wit (the Scaldic poetry) Narrative poetry undeveloped in the North; unable to compete with the lyrical forms Lyrical element in Norse narrative Volospá , the greatest of all the Northern poems False heroics; Krákumál ( Death-Song of Ragnar Lodbrok ) A fresh start, in prose, with no rhetorical encumbrances

V

T P E HE ROGRESS OF PIC

Various renderings of the same story due (1) to accidents of tradition and impersonal causes; (2) to calculation and selection of motives by poets, and intentional modification of traditional matter The three versions of the death of Gunnar and Hogni compared— Atlakviða , Atlamál , Oddrúnargrátr Agreement of the three poems in ignoring the German theory of Kriemhild's revenge The incidents of the death of Hogni clear in Atlakviða , apparently confused and ill recollected in the other two poems But it turns out that these two poems had each a view of its own which made it impossible to use the original story Atlamál , the work of a critical author, making his selection of incidents from heroic tradition the largest epic work in Northern poetry, and the last of its school The "Poetic Edda," a collection of deliberate experiments in poetry and not of casual popular variants

VI B EOWULF

Beowulf claims to be a single complete work Want of unity: a story and a sequel More unity in Beowulf than in some Greek epics. The first 2200 lines form a complete story, not ill composed Homeric method of episodes and allusions in Beowulf and Waldere Triviality of the main plot in both parts of Beowulf —tragic significance in some of the allusions The characters in Beowulf abstract types The adventures and sentiments commonplace, especially in the fight with the dragon Adventure of Grendel not pure fantasy Grendel's mother more romantic Beowulf is able to give epic dignity to a commonplace set of romantic adventures

CHAPTER III THE ICELANDIC SAGAS I I H A CELAND AND THE EROIC GE

The close of Teutonic Epic—in Germany the old forms were lost, but not the old stories, in the later Middle Ages England kept the alliterative verse through the Middle Ages Heroic themes in Danish ballads, and elsewhere Place of Iceland in the heroic tradition—a new heroic literature in prose

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II M F ATTER AND ORM

The Sagas are not pure fiction Difficulty of giving form to genealogical details Miscellaneous incidents Literary value of the historical basis—the characters well known and recognisable The coherent Sagas—the tragic motive Plan of Njála of Laxdæla of Egils Saga Vápnfirðinga Saga , a story of two generations Víga-Glúms Saga , a biography without tragedy Reykdæla Saga Grettis Saga and Gísla Saga clearly worked out Passages of romance in these histories Hrafnkels Saga Freysgoða , a tragic idyll, well proportioned Great differences of scale among the Sagas—analogies with the heroic poems

III T H I HE EROIC DEAL

Unheroic matters of fact in the Sagas Heroic characters Heroic rhetoric Danger of exaggeration—Kjartan in Laxdæla The heroic ideal not made too explicit or formal

IV T RAGIC I MAGINATION

Tragic contradictions in the Sagas— Gisli , Njal Fantasy Laxdæla , a reduction of the story of Sigurd and Brynhild to the terms of common life Compare Ibsen's Warriors in Helgeland The Sagas are a late stage in the progress of heroic literature The Northern rationalism Self-restraint and irony The elegiac mood infrequent The story of Howard of Icefirth—ironical pathos The conventional Viking The harmonies of Njála and of Laxdæla The two speeches of Gudrun

The Sagas not bound by solemn conventions Comic humours Bjorn and his wife in Njála

V C OMEDY

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Bandamanna Saga : "The Confederates," a comedy Satirical criticism of the "heroic age" Tragic incidents in Bandamanna Saga Neither the comedy nor tragedy of the Sagas is monotonous or abstract

VI T A N HE RT OF ARRATIVE

Organic unity of the best Sagas Method of representing occurrences as they appear at the time Instance from Þorgils Saga Another method—the death of Kjartan as it appeared to a churl Psychology (not analytical) Impartiality—justice to the hero's adversaries ( Færeyinga Saga )

VII E PICAND H ISTORY

Form of Saga used for contemporary history in the thirteenth century The historians, Ari (1067-1148) and Snorri (1178-1241) The Life of King Sverre , by Abbot Karl Jónsson Sturla ( c. 1214-1284), his history of Iceland in his own time ( Islendinga or Sturlunga Saga ) The matter ready to his hand Biographies incorporated in Sturlunga : Thorgils and Haflidi Sturlu Saga The midnight raid ( A . D . 1171) Lives of Bishop Gudmund, Hrafn, and Aron Sturla's own work ( Islendinga Saga ) The burning of Flugumyri Traces of the heroic manner The character of this history brought out by contrast with Sturla's other work, the Life of King Hacon of Norway Norwegian and Icelandic politics in the thirteenth century Norway more fortunate than Iceland—the history less interesting Sturla and Joinville contemporaries Their methods of narrative compared

VIII T N P R HE ORTHERN ROSE OMANCES

Romantic interpolations in the Sagas—the ornamental version of Fóstbræðra Saga The secondary romantic Sagas— Frithiof French romance imported ( Strengleikar , Tristram's Saga , etc.) Romantic Sagas made out of heroic poems ( Volsunga Saga , etc.) and out of authentic Sagas by repetition of common forms and motives Romantic conventions in the original Sagas Laxdæla and Gunnlaug's Saga — Thorstein the White Thorstein Staffsmitten Sagas turned into rhyming romances ( Rímur ) and into ballads in the Faroes

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CHAPTER IV THE OLD FRENCH EPIC

(C G) HANSONS DE ESTE

Lateness of the extant versions Competition of Epic and Romance in the twelfth century Widespread influence of the Chansons de geste —a contrast to the Sagas Narrative style No obscurities of diction The "heroic age" imperfectly represented but not ignored Roland —heroic idealism—France and Christendom William of Orange— Aliscans Rainouart—exaggeration of heroism Another class of stories in the Chansons de geste , more like the Sagas Raoul de Cambrai Barbarism of style Garin le Loherain —style clarified Problems of character—Fromont The story of the death of Begon unlike contemporary work of the Romantic School The lament for Begon Raoul and Garin contrasted with Roland Comedy in French Epic—"humours" in Garin in the Coronemenz Looïs , etc. Romantic additions to heroic cycles— la Prise d'Orange Huon de Bordeaux —the original story grave and tragic converted to Romance

CHAPTER V ROMANCE AND THE OLD FRENCH ROMANTIC SCHOOLS

Romance an element in Epic and Tragedy apart from all "romantic schools" The literary movements of the twelfth century A new beginning The Romantic School unromantic in its methods Professional Romance Characteristics of the school—courteous sentiment Decorative passages—descriptions—pedantry Instances from Roman de Troie and from Ider , etc. Romantic adventures—the "matter of Rome" and the "matter of Britain" Blending of classical and Celtic influences— e.g. in Benoit's Medea Methods of narrative—simple, as in the Lay of Guingamor ; overloaded, as in Walewein Guingamor Walewein , a popular tale disguised as a chivalrous romance The different versions of Libeaux Desconus —one of them is sophisticated Tristram —the Anglo-Norman poems comparatively simple and ingenuous French Romance and Provençal Lyric

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