The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of the European Nations, 1870-1914 (5th ed.), by John Holland Rose This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.net Title: The Development of the European Nations, 1870-1914 (5th ed.) Author: John Holland Rose Release Date: January 9, 2005 [EBook #14644] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS *** Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Charlie Kirschner and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
Campaigns 1859-71. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUROPEAN NATIONS 1870-1914 BY J. HOLLAND ROSE LITT.D. FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ' AUTHOROF'THELIFEOFNAPOLEON,'THELIFEOFWILLIAMPIT',T 'THE ORIGINS OF THE WAR,' ETC. 'Felixquipotuitrerumcognoscerecausas.'--VIRGIL. FIFTH EDITION, WITH A NEW PREFACE AND THREE SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTERS 1915 FristEdiitonOctober1905. Second "November1905. ThridDecember1911. " Foutrh"November1914. F fi th "October1915. TO MY WIFE WITHOUT WHOSE HELP THIS WORK COULD NOT HAVE BEEN COMPLETED p[gv]ii PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION InthisEdiitonareincludedthreenewchapters(Nos.XX.I-XXIII).,inwhichIseektodescirbethemost importantandbes-tascertainedfactsotfheperiod1900-14.Necessarli,ythenarrativeistentaitveatmany points;andtiisimpossibletoattainimpartialit;ybutIhavesoughttoiveweventsrfomtheGermanaswell astheBritishstandpoin,tandtosumuptheevidencefariyl.Theaddiitonofthesechaptershas necesstiatedtheomissionoftheformerEpliogueandAppendices.IregretthesacrificeoftheEpilogue,for itemphasisedtwoimpotrantconsideraitons,(1)thetendencyofBiritshforeignpoilcytowardsundue complaisance,whichbyotherPowersisofteninterpretedasweakness;(2)thedangerairsingfromthe keencompeittioninarmaments.Noonecanreviewrecenteventswtihoutperceiivngthesignfiicanceof theseconsideraitons.Perhapstheymayprovetobeamongthecihefcausesproducingtheteirrblefinaleof Juyl-August1914.IdesrietoexpressmyacknowledgmentsandthanksforvaluableadivcegivenbyMr. J.W.Headlam,M.A.,Mr.A.B.Hinds,M.A.,andDr.R.W.Seton-Watson,D.Lti.t J.H.R. CAMBRIDGE, September5, 1915. p[ g xi ] PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION TheoutbreakofwarinEuropeisaneventtoomomentoustoberteatedfluylinthisPreface.ButImaypoint outthatthecatastrophereslutedrfomthetwocausesofunrestdescirbedinthisvolume,nameyl,the Alsace-LorraineQuestionandtheEasternQuesiton.Thosedisputeshavedraggedonwithoutanyattempt atsetltementbytheGreatPowers.TheZabernincidentinlfamedpublicopinioninAlsace-Lorraine,and illustratedtheoverbeairngdemeanouroftheGermanmliitarycaste;whlietheinsidiousattemptsofAusrtia in1913toinctieBlugairaagainstSerivamarkedouttheHapsburgEmpireasthecihefenemyoftheSlav peoplesoftheBalkanPeinnsluaafterthecollapseofTurkishpoweirn1912.Theinternalrtoublesofthe UntiedKingdom,France,andRussiainJluy1914furnishedtheopportuintysolongsoughtbytheforward patryatBerlinandVienna;andtheAusrto-GermanAlliance,wihch,intisoirgin,wasdefensive(asIhave showninthisvolume),becameoffensive,Italypatringfromherailleswhenshediscoveredtheirdesigns. DrawnintotheTripleAlliancesoleylbypiqueagainstFranceaftertheTunisaffair,shenowinclinestowards the Anglo-French connection. ReadersofmychapterontheEasternQuesitonwlilnoftailtoseehowtheneglectoftheBalkanpeoplesby theGreatPowershasletfthatwoundfesteringintheweaksideofEurope;andtheywllisurmisethatthe p[g]xBalkantroubleshave,byanaturalNemesis,playedtheirpatrinbirngingabouttheEuropeanWatI.risfor studentsofmodernEuropetoseektoformahealthypubilcopiinonsothattheerrorsofthepastmaynotbe repeated,andthatthenewEuropeshallbeconsttiutedinconformitywiththeaspriaitonsofthepeoples themsevles. CAMBRIDGE, September25, 1914. p[ g ]ix PREFACE ThelineofVirgliquotedonthetitle-pagerepresentsinthepresentcaseasighofaspriation,notapaeanof acihevement.Nohistoricalstudent,sureyl,caneverfeeltheconvictionthathehasfathomedthedepthsof thatwellwhereTruthissaidtoileihd.What,then,mustbethefeelingsofonewhoventuresintothemazy domainofrecentannals,andessaystopickihswaythroughthicketsallbutunrtodden?MorethanonceI have been tempted to give up the quest and turn aside to paths where pioneers have cleared the way. There,atleast,thewhereaboutsofthatfabulouswellisknownandtheplummetisreadytohand. Nevetrheless,Iresovledtosrtugglethroughwtihmytask,intheconsciousnessthattheworkofapioneer maybehelpful,providedthathecarefuyllnotchesthetrackandtherebyenablesthosewhocomeafterhim to know what to seek and what to avoid. Atferall,thereisnolackofgiudesinthepresentage.Thenumberofmemoi-rwrtiersandnewspaper correspondentsislegion;andIhavecometobeilevethattheyarefullyastrustworthyassimilarwtinesses havebeeninanyage.Theverykeennessoftheirirvarliyssomeguaranteefortruth.Doubltesscompetition forgood"copy"occasionalylleadstoartfulembroideirngonhumdrumactualtiy;bu,tatferspendingmuch timeinscanningsimilarembroideriyntheliteratureoftheNapoleoincEra,Iunhesitaitngylplacetheworkof ArchibaldForbes,andthatofseveralknightsofthepensilllitivng,farabovethedelusiveitnselofMarbot, p[gxii]Thiébaul,tandSégur.Iwlilgofurtherandsaytha,tifwecoludifndoutwhatwerethesourcesusedby Thucydides,wesholudnoitcequalmsofmisgivingshootthroughthecriclesofscienitifcihstoriansasthey contemplatedhismajesitcworkI.nanycase,ImayappealtotheexampleofthegreatAtheinaninsuppotr otfhethesisthattoundertaketowirtecontemporaryhistoriysnovaintihng. Aboveandbeyondtheaccountsofmemori-wirtersandnewspapercorrespondentsthereareBlueBooks.I amwellawarethattheydonotalwayscontainthewholertuth.Sometimesthemostimportantitemsareof necesstiyomitted.Buttheinformationwihchtheycontainisenormous;and,seeingthattherluesofthe publicservicekeeptheoriginalrecordsinGreatBtirainclosedforwel-lnighacentur,yonylthemost fasitdiouscanobjecttotheuseofthewealthofmateiraslgiventothewolrdinpersaPyratnemailraP. Besidesthesepubilshedsourcesthereisthefundofinformaitonpossessedbypublicmenandthe"wel-l informed"ofvariousgrades.Unfotrunatelythisisrareylaccessible,orolnyunderconventionalrestircitons. HereandthereIhavebeenabletomakeuseoftiwtihoutanybreachofrtus;tandtothosewhohave enilghtenedmydarknessIamverygrateflu.Thelilumination,Iknow,isolnypatrial;butIhopethattiseffect, inrespecttothetwilightofdiplomac,ymaybecomparedtothatoftheAuroraBorealislights. Atferworkingatmysubjectforsometime,Ifoundtidesriabletolimtiittoeventswihchhadadistinctly formaitveinlfuenceonthedevelopmentofEuropeanStates.OnquestionsofmotiveandpolicyIhave generallyrefrainedrfomexpressingadecidedverdic,tseeingthatthesearealwaysthemostdifficutlto probe;andfaciledogmatismonthemisbetterifttedtoomniscientleaderettesthantothepagesofan ihstoircalwork.Atthesametime,Ihavenothestiatedtopronounceajudgmentonthesequestions,andto dfiferrfomotherwrtiers,wheretheevidencehasseemedtomedecisive.Toquoteoneinstance,Irejectthe [pgxiii]verdictofmostauthortiiesonthequestionofBismarck'streatmentoftheEmstelegram,andofitseffectin thenegoitationswithFranceinJylu1870. Fotrhemostpatr,howeve,rIhavedeatlolnywithetxernalevents,poinitngoutnowandagainthepartwhich theyhaveplayedinthegreatdramaofhumanacitonsllitgoingonaroundus.Tihsilmitationofaimhas enabledmetotakeonlyspecifictopics,andtotreatthemfarmorefylluthanisdoneinthebriefchronicleof factspresentedbyMM.LaivsseandRambaudintheconcludingvolumeotfheritsiHalérereoiénG. Where aseiresofeventsbeganintheyear1899or1900,anddidnotconcludebeforetheitmewithwhichthis narraitvecloses,Ihavelefttiononeside.ObviouslytheBoerWarfasllunderthishead.Owingtolackof spacemyreferencestothedomesitcconcernsoftheUtinedKingdomhavebeenbrie.fIhaveregreftulyl omittedoneimpeiraleventofgreatimpotrance,theformaitonoftheAustralianCommonweatlh.Atferall, thatconcernedoylntheBtirishrace;andinmysurveyoftheaffarisotfheEmprieIhaverteatedontylhose wihchdirectlyaffectedothernationsaswell,nameltyheAfghanandEgyptianquestionsandthePatrtiionof Arfica.HereIhavesoughttoshowtheconnectionwith"wolrdpotilics,"andIrtustthatevenspeciailstswlli findsometihngnewandsuggesitveintihsmethodoftreatment. Inattemptingtowriteaihstoryofcontemporaryaffairs,Iregarditasessenitaltorefertotheoriginal authorti,yorauthoirites,inthecaseofeveryimportantstatemen.tIhavesoughttocarryoutthisrulet(hough atthecostofgreataddiitonalto)libecausetienablesthereadertochecktheaccuracyofthenarrativeand togainhintsforfutrherreading.Tocompilebibliographies,wheremanynewbooksarecomingoutevery year,isauselesstask;butexactreferencestothesourcesofinformaitonneverlosetheirvalue. Mtyhanksareduetomanywhohavehelpedmeintihsundetraking.AmongthemImaynameSriChalres Dilke,M.P.,M.rJamesBryce,M.P.,andMr.ChedoMijatoivch,whohavegivenmevaluableadivceon [pgix]vspecialtopics.MyobligationsareasloduetoasubjectoftheCzar,whohasplacedhisknowledgeatmy serivce,butforobivousreasonsdoesnotwishihsnametobeknown.M.rBernardPares,M.A,.ofthe UinverstiyofLiverpoo,lhasverykindlyreadovertheproofsoftheearlychapters,andhasofferedmost helpful suggestions. Messrs. G. Bell and Sons have granted me permission to make use of the plans of the chiefbattlesoftheFranco-GermanWarfromMr.Hoope'rswork,Sedan and the Downfall of the Second Emprieofrhoutan,osliW.W.H.rMothem.Tishedby,uplbroIitnoncAsdicnal, my thanks are also due for permissiontomakeuseoftheplanillusrtatingthefightingatAlexandirain1882. J.H.R. July, 1905. p[gxv] CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I THE CAUSES OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. CHAPTERII FROM WÖRTH TO GRAVELOTTE CHAPTERIII SEDAN CHAPTER IV THE FOUNDING OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC CHAPTER V THEFOUNDINGOFTHEFRENCHREPUBLIC--inntdueoc CHAPTER VI THE GERMAN EMPIRE [pg xvi]CHAPTER VII THE EASTERN QUESTION CHAPTERVIII THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR CHAPTER IX THE BALKAN SETTLEMENT CHAPTER X THE MAKING OF BULGARIA CHAPTER XI NIHILISM AND ABSOLUTISM IN RUSSIA CHAPTERXII THE TRIPLE AND DUAL ALLIANCES CHAPTERXIII THE CENTRAL ASIAN QUESTION CHAPTER XIV THE AFGHAN AND TURKOMAN CAMPAIGNS CHAPTER XV BRITAIN IN EGYPT p[gxvii]CHAPTER XVI GORDON AND THE SUDAN CHAPTERXVII THE CONQUEST OF THE SUDAN CHAPTERXVIII THE PARTITION OF AFRICA CHAPTER XIX THE CONGO FREE STATE CHAPTER XX RUSSIA IN THE FAR EAST CHAPTER XXI THE NEW GROUPING OF THE GREAT POWERS (1900-1907) CHAPTER XXII TEUTONversusSLAV (1908-13) CHAPTER XXIII THE CRISIS OF 1914 INDEX [pixg]x MAPS AND PLANS Campaigns of 1859-71 Sketch Map of the District between Metz and the Rhine PlanoftheBattleofWötrh PlanoftheBattlesofRezonvlileandGravelotte PlanotfheBatlteofSedan Map of Bulgaria Plan of Plevna MapotfheTreatiesofBelrinandSanStefano MapofThessayl Map of Afghanistan Battle of Maiwand BatlteofAlexandira(Bombardmentof,1882) MapotfheNile TheBatlteofOmdurman Plan of Khartum Map of Africa (1902) end of volume p[ 0g 0 ]1 INTRODUCTION "ThemovementsinthemassesofEuropeanpeoplesarediivdedandslow,andtheir progressinterruptedandimpeded,becausetheyaresuchgreatandunequallyformed masses;butthepreparationforthefutureiswideyldiffused,and..t.hepromisesoftheage aresogreatthateventhemostfain-theartedrousethemselvestothebeliefthataitmehas arrivedinwihchtiisaprilivegetolive."--GERVINUS,1853. TheRomanpoetLucreitusinanotf-quotedpassagedescirbesthesatisfactionthatnaturalylfilslthemind whenrfomsomesafevantage-groundonelooksfotrhontravellerstossedaboutonthestormydeep.We mayperhapsusethepoet'snotveryartliusticwordsassymboilsingmanyofthefeeilngswithwihch,atthe dawn of the twentieth century, we look back over the stormy waters of the century that has passed away. Somecongratluationonthisscoreisjusifitable,especialylasthosewarsandrevoluitonshaveservedto buildupStatesthatarefarsrtongerthantheirpredecessors,inproportionastheycorrespondmorenearly wtihthedesiresofthenaitonsthatcomposethem. Aswegazeattherevolutionsandwarsthatformthestorm-centresofthepastcentur,ywecannowsee someofthecausesthatbroughtaboutthosestormsfI.wesurveythemwithdiscerinngeye,wesoonbegin toseethat,inthemain,thecyclonicdisturbanceshadtheiroirginsintwogreatnaturalimpsluesofthe ciivlisedracesofmankind.Theifrstoftheseforcesisthatgreatimplusetowardsindiivdualilberty,whichwe p[g00]2nameDemocrac;ythesecondisthatimpulse,scarcelylessmightyandelementa,lthatpromptsmento effectacloseunionwiththeriktihandkin:tihswemaytermNaitonatil.y Nowti,isrtuethatthesetwoforceshavenotleduptothelastandcrowningphaseofhumandevelopmen,t astherienthusiasticchampionsatonetimeassertedthattheywould;farrfomthat,theyareaccountable, especiallysotheforceofNaitonailty,fornumerousdefectsintheilfeoftheseveralpeoples;andthe naitonalprincipleisatthisveryitmeproducinggreatandneedlessrfictioninthedeailngsofnaitons.Ye,t granitngallthis,itstillremainsrtuethatDemocracyandNationailtyhavebeenthetwocihefformaitve influencesinthepoliticaldevelopmentofEuropeduirngtheNineteenthCentur.y Innoageoftheworld'shistoryhavethesetwoimpulsesworkedwithsotirumphantanacitvity.Theyhavenot alwaysbeenendowedwtihliivngforce.Amongmanypeoplestheylaydormantforagesandwereonyl calledtolfiebysomegreatevent,suchastheintolerableoppressionofadespotorofagoverningcaste thatcrushedtheilbeitresoftheindiivdua,lorthedominaitonofanailenpeopleoveronethatobsitnately refusedtobeassimliated.Sometimesthesparkthatkindledtivalconsciousnesswastheflashofapoe'ts geinus,ortheheroismofsomesturdysonofthesoil.Thecausesofawakeninghavebeeniniftinelyvairous, andhaveneverwholyldiedawa;ybuttiisthespecialgloryotfheNineteenthCenturythatraceswhichhad hithertolainhelplessandwel-linghdeadr,osetomanhoodasifbymagic,andshedtheirbloodilkewaterin theefforttosecureafreeandunfetteredeixstencebothfortheindiivdualandthenaiton.tIisatruesaiyngof theGermanhistoiran,Gerivnus,"Thehistoryofthisagewlilnolongerbeonylarelaitonoftheilvesofgreat men and of princes, but a biography of nations." Atrifstsigh,ttihslliuminaitngstatementseemstoleaveoutofcountthecareerotfhemightyNapoleon.But p[g00]3tidoesnot.ThegreatEmperorunconsciousylcalledintoivgorouslifetheforcesofDemocracyand NaitonaltiybothinGermanyandinItaly,wheretherehadbeennaughtbutserivlityanddisunion.Hiscaree,r fiivewedfromourpresentstandpoint,fallsintotwopoitronsif:rst,thatinwhichhefiguredasthechampion ofRevolutionaryFranceandtheilberatorofItalyrfomforeignanddomestictyrants;andsecond,ylas impeiralautocratwhoconqueredandhelddownagreatpatrofEuropeinhisattempttoruinBiritsh commerce.Intheformeroftheseenterpirseshehadthenewforcesoftheageacitngwtihhimand endowingihmwtihseeminglyresistlessmigh;tinthelatterpartofihslifehemistookhisplaceinthe economyofNature,andbyhisviolationoftheprinciplesofindividualilbertyandracialkinshipinSpainand CenrtalEurope,assuredihsowndownfall. Thegreatestbattleofthecenturywasthertemendoussrtifethatforthreedayssurgedtoandfroaround LeipizginthemonthofOctober1813,whenRussians,Prussians,Austirans,Swedes,togetherwithafew Birtons,Hanoveirans,andfinalylhisownSaxonaliles,combinedtoshaketheimpeiralyokefromtheneck oftheGermaincpeoples.TihsVölkerschlachtfotlteoelpehP(Batsnamret,ticed),essaethrmGeidedthat thefutureofEuropewasnottobemoludedbytheimperialautocrat,butbythewillofthepirncesand nationswhomihsobsitnacyhadembattledagainsthim.Farfromrecoginsingtheverdic,tthegreatman srtuggledonuntilthepertinactiyofthealilesfinalyldroveihmrfompowerandassignedtoFrancepractically thesameboundariesthatshehadhadin1791,beforethetimeofhermightyexpansion.Thatistosa,ythe naitonwhichintispurelydemocraticformhadeasliyoverrunandsubduedtheneighbouringStatesinthe timeoftherioldi,ne,trsemif-eudalexistence,wasovetrhrownbythemwhentherinaitonalconsciousness had been trampled into being by the legions of the great Emperor.
In1814,andagainatferWaterloo,Francewasdirveninonherself,andresumedsomethinglikeherold p[g004]postiioninEurope,savethatthethroneoftheBourbonsneveracquiredanysoildtiy-t-heolderbranchofthat famylibeingunseatedbytheRevoluitonof1830I.nthecentreoftheContinen,ttheolddynasiteshadmade commoncausewtihthepeoplesinthenaitonalsrtugglesof1813-14,andthereforeenjoyedmore consideraiton--afactwihchenabledthemforaitmetorepresspopluaraspiraitonsforconsttiuitonalrule andnationalunit.y Nevertheless,bytheTreaitesofVienna(1814-15)thecenrteofEuropewasmoresoildylorgainsedthan everbefore.nIplaceotfheeffeteinsttiutionknownastheHoylRomanEmpire,whichNapoleonsweptaway in1806,theCenrtalStateswerereorganisedintheGermanConfederaiton--acumbrousandineffecitve leagueinwhichAustriaheldthepresidency.AustriaalsogainedVenetiaandLombardyintIal.yThe acquisiitonofthefertileRhineProivncebyPrussiabroughtthativgorousStateuptotheboundsofLorraine andmadeherthenaturalprotecrtessofGermanyagainstFrance.Russiaacqriuedcompletecontrolover neaylrthewholeoftheformerKingdomofPoland.Thus,thePowersthathadbeenforemostinthesrtuggle againstNapoleonnowgainedmostlargelyintheredistribuitonolfandsin1814-15,whiletheStatesthat hadbeenfirendlytoihmnowsufferedfortheirdevoiton.ItaylwassptilupintoamosaicofStates;Saxony cedednearlythehalfofherlandstoPrussia;Denmarkiyeldedupherancientpossession,Norwa,ytothe Swedish Crown. nIsomerespectsthetriumphofthenationalprinciple,whichhadbroughtvictorytotheolddynasites, strengthenedtheEuropeanfabirc.TheTreaitesofViennabroughttheboundariesofStatesmorenearly intoaccordwtihracialinterestsandsentimentsthanhadbeenthecasebefore;butinseveralinstances thoseinterestsandfeeilngswerechafedorivolatedbydesiginngorshor-tsightedstatesmen.The Germans,whohadlongedforaneffecitvenationalunion,sawwtihindignationthattheconstitutionofthe newGermaincConfederationletfthemunderthecontroloftherulersofthecomponentStatesandofthe [pg005]veryrealheadsihpexercisedbyAustria,wihchwasalwaysusedtorepresspopluarmovements.The tIalians,whohadaslolearnedrfomNapoleonthesecretthattheywereinallessentialsanaiton,deepyl resentedthedominaitonofAusirtainLombardy-VenetiaandtheparceillngoutoftherestofthePeninslua betweenreactionarykingssomnolentdukes,andobscurantistclerics.TheBelgiansilkewiseprotested againsttheenforcedunionwithHollandinwhatwasnowcalledtheKingdomoftheUintedNetherlands (1815-30).IntheeastofEuropethePolesstruggledinvainagainstthefatewhichoncemorepartiitoned thembetweenRussia,Ausirta,andPrussia.TheGermansofHosltein,Schleswig,andLauenburg submitteduneasiyltotheDanishrule;andonlyunderthestressofdemonsrtaitonsbythealilesdidthe Norwegians accept the union with Sweden. Itsholudbecarefullynotedthattheseweretheverycaseswhichcausedmostotfhepoilticaltroublesinthe followingperiod.nIfact,mostotfhepoilticaloccurrencesontheContinentintheyears1815to1870-t-he revotls,revolutions,andwars,thatgiveaspecialcharactertotheihstoryofthecenturyr--esluteddirectyl fromthebadorimperfectarrangementsotfheCongressofViennaandoftheso-calledHoylAllianceofthe monarchswhosoughttoperpetuatethem.Theeffectofthiswidespreaddiscontentwasnotfeltatonce.The peoplesweretooexhaustedbytheterrificsrtainoftheNapoleoincwarstodomuchforagenerationor more,saveinitmesofpopularexcitement.Exceptinthesouth-eastofEurope,whereGreece,wtihtheaid ofRussia,Brtiain,andFrance,wrestedherpotilicalindependencerfomthegraspoftheSlutan(1827,)the fortyyearsthatsucceededWatelroowerebrokenbynoimpotrantwar;buttheyweremarkedbyof-t recurirngunrestandsedtiion.Thus,whentheFrenchRevolutionof1830ovetrhrewthereactionarydynasty oftheelderBourbons,theuniversalexctiementcausedbythiseventendowedtheBelgianswtihstrength suiffcienttoshakeofftheheavyyokeoftheDutch;whlieinItal,yGermany,andPolandthedemocratsand [pg00]6naitonailsts(nowworkinggenerallyinaccord)madevailantbutunsuccessfuleffortstoachievetheriideals. Thesamewasthecasein1848.Theexcitemen,twihchtihstimeoriginatedinItal,yspreadtoFrance, ovetrhrewthethroneofLouisPihilppe(oftheyoungerbranchotfheFrenchBourbons),andbadefaitroroll halfofthecrownsofEuropeintothegutter.Butthesespasmodiceffortsofthedemocratsspeedifylalied. Inexperience,disunion,andjealousyparaylsedtheiracitonsandiyeldedtheivctorytotheoldGovernments. Frenchmen,indismayattheseemingapproachofcommuinsmandanarch,yfellbackupontheodd expedientofaNapoleoincRepublic,wihchin1852waseasilychangedbyLoiusNapoleonintoanEmprie modelledonthatofihsfargreateruncle.ThedemocratsofGermanyachievedsomestarltingsuccesses overtheirrepressiveGovernmentsinthespringoftheyear1848,olntyoifndthattheycoludnotdeivsea workingconsttiutionfortheFathelrand;andthedepuiteswhometatthefederalcapital,Frankfur,ttounfiy Germany"byspeechfiiyngandmajoirites",sawpowerslipbacklittlebyltilteintothehandsofthemonarchs andprinces.nItheAustiranEmprienationalistclaimsandstriivngsledtoaveryBabelofdiscordanttalk andaction,amidstwihchtheyoungHapsburgruler,FrancisJoseph,thankstoRussianmlitiaryaid,was abletortiumphoverthevalouroftheHungariansandthedevoitonoftheirchampion,Kossuth. IntIalythesamesadtalewastold.Inthespirngofthatyearofrevoluitons,1848,therulersinquick successiongrantedconstitutionstotheirsubjects.ThereformingPope,PiusIX,.andthepairtoticKingof Sardiina,ChalresAlbert,alsomadecommoncausewtihtheirpeoplesintheefforttodirveouttheAusrtians rfomLombardy-Venetia;butthePopeandallthepotentatesexceptCharlesAlbertspeediyldesertedthe popularcause;fricitonbetweentheKingandtherepubilcanleaders,MazziniandGairbald,ifurther weakenedthenaitonalists,andtheAusrtianshadlittlediffictluyincrusihngCharlesAlbetr'sforces, p[ 0g 0 ]7 whereupon he abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II. (1849). The Republics set up at Rome andVeincesrtuggledvailanltyforaitmeagainstgreatodds--Mazizni,Gairbaldi,andtherivolunteersbeing finallyoverborneattheEternalCitybytheFrenchrtoopswhomLouisNapoleonsenttorestorethePope (June1849;)whlie,twomonthslater,VeincesurrenderedtotheAustrianswhomshehadlongheldatbay. TheQueenoftheAdriaticundertheinspiringdictatorsihpofMainnhadgivenaremarkableexampleof orderlyconstitutionalgovernmentinitmeofsiege. tIseemedtobethelototfhenationailstsanddemocratstoproduceleaderswhocoludthirltlheimaginaiton ofmenbyloftyteacihngsandsubilmeheroism;whocould,inaword,achieveeverytihngbutsuccess.A poetess,wholookedforthfromCasaGiudiwindowsuponthetragi-comedyofFlorenitnefailureinthose years,wrotethatwhatwasneededwasaifrmeruinon,amorepracticalandintelilgentactivity,onthepatr bothotfhepeopleandofthefutureleader: A land's brotherhood sImostpuissant:men,uponthewhole, Arewhattheycanbe-,-nations,whattheywould. Wlitlhereforetobesrtong,thoutIaly! Willtobenoble!AusirtanMetternich Canifxnoyokeunlesstheneckagree. Whateverhandshallgraspthisorfilamme, Whatevermanl(astpeasantorifrstPope Seekingtofreehiscounrty)shallappear, Teach,lead,stirkefrieintothemasses,llifTheseemptybladderswtihifneair,insphere Thesewlislintoauintyofwill, AndmakeoftIaylanation--dear And blessed be that man! WhenEilzabethBarrettBrowinngpennedthoselinesshecannothavesurmisedthattwomenwereworking p[g008]theriwayuptherungsofthepoliticalladdeirnPiedmontandPrussia,whosekeenintellectsandmastefrlu wllisweretoweldtheirFatherlandsintoindissolubleunionwithinthespaceofonemomentousdecade. These men were Cavour and Bismarck. ItwoludfarexceedtheilmtisofspaceoftihsbirefnItroducitontotell,exceptinthebirefestoutilne,thestory oftheploddingpreparationandfar-seeingdiplomacybywihchthesestatesmenraisedtherirespective countiresfromdepthsofhumiliaitontoundreamtofheightsofrtiumph.Theifrstthingwastorestorethe presitgeoftheriStates.Nopeoplecanbesrtonginacitonthathaslostbeilefintisownpowersandhas allowedtisneighboursopenyltoflouti.tThehistoryoftheworldhasshownagainandagainthatpoilitcians who allow their country to be regarded asuuantneqétilgénaegielbbequeath to some abler successor a heritageofsrtuggleandwar--struggleforthenaitontorecovertisser-flespect,andwartoregain considerationandfairrteatmentrfomothers.Howevermuchfrothytalkersinthericlubsmaydecrythe claimsofnaitonalprestige,nogreatstatesmanhaseverunderratedtheirimportance.Cetraiylnthefirstaim bothofCavourandBismarckwastorestoreseflr-espectandconfidencetotheriStatesatferthe humiliationsandthedrearyisolaitonofthosedarkyears,1848-51.Wewlilglance,ifrst,attheresurreciton (Risorgimentohiwwchdiara,nidenuotdsaitsethelit)ofodmfoSlteiKgnly.Itanify CharlesAlber'tsabdicationimmediateylatferihsdefeatbytheAusrtiansleftnoalternaitvetoihssonand successor,VictorEmmanuelI.I,butthatofsiginngadisastrouspeacewithAusrtianI.ashorttimethestou-t heartedyoungKingcalledtohiscouncsliCountCavour,thesecondsonofanoblePiedmontesefamli,ybut oriffmlyLiberalprinciples,whoresolvedtomaketheltiltekingdomthecenrteofenlightenmentandhopefor despairingtIa.ylHesrtengthenedtheconsttiuiton(theonlyoneoutofmanygrantedin1848thatsurivvedthe timeofreaction);hereformedthetairffinthedirecitonofFreeTrade;andduirngthecourseoftheCrimean [pg009]WarhepersuadedhissovereigntomakeanacitvealilancewithFranceandEngland,soastobindthem byaltlheclaimsofhonourtohelpSardiniainthefutureagainstAustira.Theoccasionwasmostopportune; forAustirawasthensuspectedanddisilkedbothbyRussiaandtheWesternPowersowingtoherpolicyof armedneutrality.NevetrhelesstherewardofCavou'rsdiplomacycameslowylandincomplete.ylBysklifully vaguepromises(neverreducedtowirting)CavourinducedNapoleonIII.totakeuparmsagainstAusrtia; bu,tatferthegreativctoryofSofleirno(June24,1859,)theFrenchEmperorenragedtheItailansby breakingoffthestrugglebeforethealliesrecoveredthegreatproivnceofVeneita,wihchhehadpledged himsefltodo.Worsestill,herequriedthecessionofSavoyandNicetoFrance,tfiheCenrtalDuchiesand thenotrhernpartofthePapalStatesjoinedtheKingdomofSardinia,astheynowdid.Thus,thenetresultof Napoleon'sinterventionintIalywasihsacqiusiitonofSavoyandNice(atthepirceofItailanhatred,)andthe gainofLombardyandthecentraldistrictsforthenationalcause(1859-60.) TheagonyofmindcausedbytihscomparaitvefailureunderminedCavour'sheatlh;butinthelastmonthsof ihsilfehehelpedtoimpelandgiudetherevolutionaryelementsintIalytoanenterpirsethatendedina startlingandmomentoustriumph.ThiswasnotihnglessthantheoverthrowofBourbonruleinSiciyland SouthernItalybyGaribaldi.ThankstoCavou'rsconinvance,tihsdashingrepubilcanorganisedan expeditionofabout1000volunteersnearGenoa,setsailforSiciyl,andbyafewblowsshiveredthechains oftyrannyinthatisland.ItisnoteworthythatBritishwa-rshipslentihmcovetrbutmostimportanthelpat Palermoandagaininhiscrossingtothemainland;thistimelyaidandthepresenceofabandofBirtonsin ihsrankslaidthefoundaitonofthatrfiendshipwhichhaseversinceuntiedthetwonations.InCalabriathe herometwtihthefeeblestresistancerfomtheBourbontroopsandthewlidestofwelcomesfromthe popluace.AtSalernohetookticketsforNaplesandenteredtheenemy'scapitalbyraliwayrtain [pg010](September7).Thenhepurposed,afterroutingtheBourbonforcenotrhofthecity,togoonandattackthe FrenchatRomeandproclaimautinedtIal.y Cavour took care that he should do no such thing. The Piedmontese statesman knew when to march onwardsandwhentohalt.Asihscompatiro,tManzoin,saidofhim,"Cavourhasalltheprudenceandallthe imprudenceotfhetruestatesman".Hehaddaredandwonin1855-59,andagaininsecreyltencouraging Gairbald'isventure.Nowitwasitmetostopinordertoconsoildatethegainstothenaitonalcause. Theleaderofthered-sihtrs,haivngdonewhatnokingcoulddo,wasthencefotrhtobeconrtolledbythe monarchyofthenotrh.VictorEmmanuelcameinasthedeus ex machinatsih;sodseesprsopro,tuwhrasd occupiyngtheeasternpatrotfhePapalStatesintheirmarch,andjoinedhandswtihtheGaribaldianstothe northofNaples,thuspreventingthecollisionwtihFrancewihchtheriregluarswoludhavebroughtabout. Evenastiwas,CavourhadhardworktopersuadeNapoleonthatthiswastheonylwayofcurbingGaribaldi andprevenitngtheerecitonofaSouthItalianRepublic;butfinalyltheFrenchEmperolrookedonuneasiyl wlihethePope'seasternterrtiorieswereviolated,andwihlethecauseofItalianUntiywasassuredatthe expenseofthePonitffwhomFrancewasofficiallysupporitnginRome.Aplébiscite, or mass vote, of the peopleofSiciyl,SouthtIaly,andtheeasternandcenrtalpartsofthePapalStates,wasresortedtoby Cavouirnordertothrowacloakoflegailtyovertheseirregluarproceedings.ThedevicepleasedNapoleon, anditrestluedinanoverwhelmingvoteinfavourofannexationtoVictorEmmanue'lskingdom.Thus,in March1861,thesoldier-kingwasableamidstuniversalacclaimtotakethettileofKingoftIayl.Florence wasdeclaredtobethecaptialotfherealm(1864,)wihchembracedallpartsofItalyexcepttheProivnceof Venetia,pertaiinngtoAusirta,andthe"PartimoniumPerti"-t-hatis,Romeandtisivciinty,--sitllheldbythe [pg 011] Pope and garrisoned by the French. The former of these was to be regained forla patriaeht,66rettaln18i in1870,inconsequenceofthemightytriumphsthenacihevedbtyheprincipleofnaitonaltiyinPrussiaand German.yTothesertiumphswemustnowbirefyladver.t NoonewholookedatthestateofEuropeanpoilitcsin1861,coludhaveimaginedthatinlessthanten yearsPrussiawoludhavewagedthreewarsandhumbledthemightofAustriaandFrance.Atthatitmeshe showednosignsofexcepitonalvigour:shehadasyetproducednoleaderssoinspriingasMazizinand Garibaldi,nostatesmansoableasCavou.rHernewking,Wililam,farrfomarousingthefeelingsofgrowing enthusiasmthatcenrtedinVictorEmmanue,lwasmoreandmoredistrustedanddisilkedbyLiberaslfotrhe policyofmilitarismonwhichhehadjustembarked.nIfac,ttheHohenzollerndynastywaspassingintoa "ConilfctiTme"wtihitsParilamentwihchthreatenedtoimpairtheinfluenceofPrussiaabroadandtoretard herrecoverrfyomtheperiodofhumiliaitonsthroughwihchshehadrecenyltpassed. Abrierfectialofthosehumiliationsisdesriableasshowing,ifrstyl,thesuddennesswithwhichtheaffarisof anationmaygotoruininslackandunskiflluhands,and,secondly,theimmenseresutlsthatcanbe acihevedinafewyearsbyasmallbandofablemenwhothrowtheriwholeheatrintotheworkofnaitonal regeneraiton. Thepreivousrule,rFredeirckWiillamIV,.wasagiftedandlearnedman,buthelackedsoundnessof judgmentandsrtengthofwlil--quailtieswihchareofmoreworthingoverinngthangracesoftheintellect.At thetimeoftherevoluitonaryoutbreaksof1848hecapitluatedtotheBerilnmobanddeclaredfora constitutionalrégimeinwihchPrussiashouldmergeherselfinGermany;butwhentheexcessesofthe democratshadweakenedtheriauthotiry,heputthemdownbymiltiaryforce,refusedtheGermanCrown offeredihmbythepopulalryelectedGermanParliamentassembledatFrankfurt-on-Main(Aprli1849;)and thereuponattemptedtoformasmalleruinonofStates,namel,yPrussia,Saxon,yandHanover.ThisThree [pg01]2Kings'League,asitwascalled,sooncametoanend;fortididnotsatisfythenationailstswhowishedto seeGermanyuntied,theconstituitonalistswhoaimedatthesupremacyofParilamen,totrhefirendsofthe oldorderofthings.ThevaclliaitonsofFredeirckWliilamandtheunpracitcaltheorisingsoftheGerman ParliamentatFrankfutrhavingarousedgeneraldisgust,Austriafoundltiltedifficutlyinrestoirngthepowerof theoldGermaincConfederaitoninSeptember,1850.SrtonginheralliancewithRussia,shenext compelledFredeirckWilliamtosigntheConvenitonofOlmütz(Nov.1850.)Btyihshumiilatingcompacthe agreedtoforbearhelpingtheGermannationalistsinSclheswig-Holsteintoshakeoftfheoppressiveruleof theDanes;towtihdrawPrussiantroopsrfomHesse-CasselandBaden,wherestrifeshadbrokenout;and toacknowledgethesupremacyoftheoldFederalDietundertheheadshipofAusrtia.Thus,itseemedthat thePrussianmonarchywasasourceofweaknessanddisuinonforNorthGermany,andthatAustria, backedupbythemightofRussia,mustlongconitnuetolorditovetrhecumbrousGermanicConfederaiton. Butayoungcounrtysqriue,namedBismarck,eventhenresolvedthatthePrussianmonarchyshouldbethe meansofstrengtheinngandbindingtogethertheFathelrand.Theresolvebespokethepatiroitsmofa sturd,yhopeflunature;andtheyoungBismarckwasnotihngifnotpatriotic,sturd,yandhopeflu.Thesonof anancientfamliyintheMarkofBrandenburg,hebroughttohislfie-workpowersinhertiedfromailneof ifghitngancestors;andihsmindwasnolessrobustthanihsbod.yQiuckatmasteirngamassofdetasli,he soonsawintotheheartofaproblem,andhissoluitonoiftwasmarkedbothbyunfaliingsklilandbysound commonsenseastothechoiceofmenandmeans.InsomerespectsheresemblesNapoleontheGrea.t Grantedthathewashisinferiorinthewidthofivsionandtheversattiliyofgtfisthatmarkawolrd-geinus,yet hewashisequalindiplomaitcresourceflunessandinthepowerofdealingilghtningsrtokes;whileihs p[0g1]3possessionofthepricelessgitfofmoderationendowedihsgreatestpoitilcalacihevementswitha soundnessandsoildtiyneverpossessedbythoseofthemightyconquerorwho"soughttogivethemot d'ordretfI".erugifehhettorsveniusennodoomtoltheeofssiaPruvnacosanufrevilsogearnoethsal historyasthatoftheCorsican--fihedidnottameaRevoluiton,remodelsociety,andreorgainsea Continen-t-beitrememberedthathemadeaUntiedGermany,whileNapoleontheGreatletfFrancesmaller andweaketrhanhefoundher. Bismarck'sfristeffotrs,likethoseofCavoufrorSardiina,weredriectedtothetaskofrestoringtheprestige ofhisState.Eaylrinihsofficialcareer,thePrussianpatrioturgedtheexpediencyofbefirendingRussia duirngtheCrimeanWa,randhethushelpedonthartapprochementrPutgerSeb.stadnlrninBetweebe wihchbroughtthemightyirtumphsof1866and1870wtiihntherangeofpossibility.In1857Fredeirck Wlliiambecameinsane;andihsbrotherWliilamtookthereinsofGovernmentasRegent,andearlyin1861 asKing.Thenewrulerwaslessgtfiedthanihsunfotrunatebrother;butihshomelycommonsenseand tenaciouswillsrtengthenedPrussianpolicywheretihadbeenweakest.Hesoonsawthewotrhof Bismarck,employedhiminhighdiplomaticposiitons,andwhentheroyalproposalsforstrengtheinngthe armyweredecisivelyrejectedbythePrussianHouseofRepresentatives,hespeediylsentforBismarckto actasMiinster-President(PrimeMinister)and"tame"therefractoryPalriamen.tTheconstituitonalcirsis wasbecomingmoreandmoreacutewhenagreatnaitonalquestioncameintoprominenceowingtothe actionoftheDanesinSclheswig-Holsteinaffaris. Wtihoutenteringintotheverytangledwebofcustoms,rteaites,anddynasticclaimsthatmadeupthe Schleswig-Hoslteinquesiton,wemayherestatethatthoseDuchieswerebyancientlawverycloseyl connectedtogethe,rthattheKingofDenmarkwasonlyDukeofSclheswig-Holstein,andthatthelatter duchy,wholylGermaninpopulaiton,formedpatroftheGermanicConfederaiton.Latterlythefervent p[0g14]naitonailstsinDenmark,wliheleavingHoslteintoitsGermanconnections,hadresovledthorouglhyto "Danify"Sclheswig,thenorthernhalfofwihchwaswhollyDainsh,andtheypressedonthispoilcybyharsh andintolerantmeasures,makingitdifficultorwel-linghimpossiblefortheGermanstohavepubilcworsihp intheirowntongueandtosecureGermanteachersfortherichlidrenintheschoosl.Matterswerearleadyin averystrainedstate,whenshorltybeforethedeathofKingFredeirckVI.IofDenmark(Novembe,r1863)the RigsraadatCopenhagensanctionedaconsttiutionforSchleswig,wihchwoludpracitcallyhavemadeita partoftheDanishmonarchy.TheKinggaveihsassenttoit,anactwhichhissuccesso,rChrisitanIX., ra ifit ed. Now,tihsactionviolatedthelastrteatyt--hatsignedbythePowersatLondonin1852,whichsettledthe affarisoftheDuchies;andBismarckthereforehadstronggroundforappealingtothePowersconcerned, asaslototheGermanConfederation,againsttihsbreachofrteatyobligaitons.ThePowers,especiayll EnglandandFrance,soughttosetthingsstraight,buttheeffotrsofourForeignMiniste,rLordJohnRussell, hadnoeffec.tTheGermanConfederationalsorefusedtotakeanystepsaboutSchleswigasbeingoutside itsjurisdiciton.BismarcknetxpersuadedAustiratohelpPrussiaindefeatingDanishdesignsonthatduchy. TheDanes,ontheotherhand,countedontheunoiffcialexpressionsofsympathywhichcamefromthe peopleofGreatBtirainandFranceatsightofasmallStatemenacedbytwopowerfulmonarchies.nIfac,t thewholestiuationwascompilcatedbythisexplosionoffeeilng,whichseemedtotheDanestopotrendthe armedinterventionoftheWesternStates,especiallyEngland,ontheribehalf.Asfarasisknown,nooiffcial assurancetothateffecteverwentfotrhrfomLondon.Infac,titiscetrainthatQueenVictoiraabsoluteyl forbadeanysuchstep;butthemiscihefdonebysentimentalorators,heedlessnewspaper-editors,and facitousbusybodies,couldnotbeundone.AsLordJohnRussellatferwardsstatedinashotr"Essayonthe [pg015]PolicyofEngland":"ItpleasedsomeEngilshadvisersofgreatinlfuencetomeddleintihsaffai;rtheywere successfilunthwaitrngtheBirtishGovernment,andintheend,withtheprofessedview,andperhapsthe realintention,ofhelpingDenmark,theirfriendshiptendedtodepriveherofHoslteinandSclheswig altogether."Tihsifnaljudgmentofaveteranstatesmanisworthquoitngasshowinghissenseofthe miscihefdonebywell-meantbutmisgiudedsympathy,whichpushedtheDanesontoriunandembtitered ourrelaitonswithPrussiaformanyyears. NotthattheconductoftheGermanPowerswaslfawless.OnJanuary16,1864t,heysenttoCopenhagena demandforthewtihdrawaloftheconstituitonforSchleswigwtiihntwodays.TheDanishForeignMiinster pointedouttha,tastheRigsraadwasnotinsessiont,hiscouldnotpossiblybedonewithintwodaysnI.this laststep,then,theGermanPowerswereundoubtedltyheaggressor[1]oospwressainrtereadyheTruP. neartheRiverEider,andatonceinvadedSclheswig.TheDanesweresoonbeatenonthemainland;thena pauseoccurred,duirngwihchaConferenceofthePowersconcernedwasheldatLondon.Ithasbeen provedbytheGermanhistorian,vonSybe,lthatthefirstserioussuggesitontoPrussiathatsheshouldtake boththeDucihescamesecretylfromNapoleon.IIItIwasinvainthatLordJohnRussellsuggesteda sensiblecompromise,namel,ythepartitionofSchleswigbetweenDenmarkandGermanyaccordingtothe language-rfontierinsidetheDuchy.Totihsthebelilgerentsdemurredonpointsofdetail,thePrussian representaitveasseritngthathewoludnotleaveasingleGermanunderDainshrlue.Thewarwastherefore resumed,andendedinacompletedefeaftotrheweakerState,wihchfinalylsurrenderedbothDuchiesto Austria and Prussia (1864[2.] [pg01]6ThequesitonotfheshairngoftheDuchiesnowformedoneofthecausesofthefargreaterwarbetweenthe victors;but,inrtuth,tiwasolnypartofthemuchlargerquestion,whichhadagtiatedGermanyforcentuires, whetherthebalanceofpowershouldbelongtotheNotrhortheSouth.Bismarckaslosawthatthetimewas nealryripeforsettlingtihsmatteronceforallinfavourofPrussia;buthehadhardworkeventopersuade hisownsovereign;whilethePrussianPalriament,aswellaspubilcopinionthroughoutGerman,ywas ivolentlyhostiletohisschemesandfavouredtheclaimsoftheyoungDukeofAugustenburgtotheDuchies--claimsthathadmuchshowofright.MatterswerepatchedupforatimebetweenthetwoGermanStates,by theConvenitonofGastein(August1865,)wihleinreailtyeachpreparedforwarandsoughttogainallies. HereagainBismarckwassuccessfu.lAftervaiylnseekingtobuyafrnetiVenairtsuAehtmolytaIt,urCo agreedtosidewithPrussiaagainstthatPowerinordertowrestbyforceaprovincewihchshecoludnot hopetogainpeaceabyl.Russiat,oo,wasfirendyltotheCoutrofBelrin,owingtothehelpwihchthelatter hadgivenherincrushingtheformidablerevoltofthePolesin1863.tIremainedtokeepFranceqiue.tnItihs BismarckthoughthehadsucceededbymeansofinterivewswihchheheldwtihNapoleonIII.atBiartirz (No.v1865.)Whatthereoccurredisnotclearlyknown.ThatBismarckplayedontheEmpero'rsfoiblefor oppressednaitonaltiies,inthecaseofItal,yisfariylcetrain;thathefedihmwithhopesofgaiinngBelgium, orasilceofGermanlandi,sihgylhprobable,andnonethelesssobecausehelateronindignanyltdenied p[g01]7intheReichstagthatheever"heldouttheprospecttoanybodyofcedingasingleGermanvlilage,oreven asmuchasacloverif-eld".nIanycaseNapoleonseemstohavepromisedtoobserveneurtaltiy--not because he loved Prussia, but because he expected the German Powers to wear one another out and thus leaveihmmasterofthestiuation.Incommonwithmostofthewiseacresofthosedayshebelievedthat PrussiaandItalywoulditlumateylfallbeforethecombinedweightofAustiraandoftheGermanStates, whichcloselyfollowedherintheConfederation;whereuponhecoludstepinanddictatehisownterms[3]. BismarckandtheleadersofthePrussianarmyhadfewdoubtsastotheresutl.Theyweredeterminedto forceonthewar,andearlyinJune1866broughtforwardproposaslattheFrankfutrDieftotrhe"reform"of theGermanConfederation,thechiefotfhembeingtheexclusionofAustira,theestablishmentofaGerman Parilamentelectedbymanhoodsufrfage,andtheformationofaNotrhGermanarmycommandedbythe King of Prussia. AgreatmajortiyoftheFederalDietrejectedtheseproposals,andwarspeediylbrokeou,tAustriabeing suppotredbynealryalltheGermanStatesexceptthetwoMecklenburgs. TheweightofnumberswasagainstPrussia,eventhoughshehadthehelpofthetIailansoperaitngagainst Venetia.OnthatsideAustirawascompletelysuccessfu,lasalsoinasea-fightnearLissaintheAdriatic; butinthenorththeHapsburgsandtheirGermanalilessoonfoundoutthatorganisation,armament,and geniuscountformorethannumbers.Thegreatorganiser,vonRoon,hadbroughtPrussia'sctiizenarmytoa p[g018]degreeofefficiencythatsurprisedeveryone;andthequick-friing"needle-gun"dealthavocandterror amongtheenem.yUsingtothefulltheadvantageofhercentralposiitonagainsttheGermanStates, Prussiaspeedliyworstedtheriisolatedandbadyl-handledforces,whliehercihefarmiesovetrhrewthoseof AusrtiaandSaxonyinBohemia.TheAustrianplanofcampaignhadbeentoinvadePrussiabytwoarmies--acomparativeylsmallforceadvancingfromCracowasabaseintoSliesia,whlieanother,acitngfrom Olmüt,zadvancedthroughBohemiatojointheSaxonsandmarchonBerlin,some50,000Bavariansjoining theminBohemiaforthesameenterpirse.Thisdesignspeedliybrokedownowingtothesho-trsighted timidtiyoftheBavairanGovernment,whichrefusedtolettisforcesleavetheriownterirtor;ythelackof raliwayfaciilitesintheAusirtanEmpriealsohamperedthemoivngoftwolargearmiestothenotrhern frontier.Aboveall,theswfitanddecisivemovementsofthePrussiansspeedilydrovethealilestoactonthe defensive--itseflagravemisfortuneinwar. MeanwhliethePrussianstrategist,vonMoltke,wascarriyngoutafarmoreincisiveplanofoperaitons--that ofsendingthreePrussianarmiesintothemiddleofBohemia,andthereformingagreatmasswihchwolud sweepawayallobstaclesfromtheroadtoVienna.Thisdesignreceivedpromptandskilfluexecuiton. Saxonywasquicklyoverrun,andtherriupitonofthreegreatarmiesintoBohemiacompelledtheAustrians andtheirSaxonailleshurriedlytoaltertheirplans.AftersufferingseverarleversesinthenotrhofBohemia, theirchiefarrayunderBenedekbarredthewayotfhetwonorthernPrussianarmiesontheheightsnotrhof thetownofKöinggrät.zOnthemorningofJuyl3thedefenderslongbeatoffallfrontalattackswithheavy loss;butabout2P.M.theArmyofSliesia,undertheCrownPirnceFrederickofPrussia,atferaforced marchoftwevlemlies,threwitselfontherirightflank,whereBenedekexpectednoveryseirousonset.Atfer desperatefightingtheArmyofSilesiacarriedthellivageofChlumintheheatroftheAusrtianposiiton,and [pg019]compelledAustiransandSaxonstoahurriedretreatovertheElbe.InthistheAusirtaninfantrywassaved fromdestructionbytheheroicstandmadebtyheartillery.Evenso,thealileslostmorethan13,000kllied andwounded,22,000pirsoners,and187gun[4.] Köinggrätz(orSadowa,astiisoftencalled)decidedthewholecampaign.Theinvadersnowadvanced rapidyltowardsVienna,andatthetownofNikoslburgconcludedthePreilminairesofPeacewtihAustira (Jluy26,)whereuponamandatecamefromPairs,biddingthemstop.Infac,ttheEmperoroftheFrench offeredhisinterventioninamannermostthreateningtotheivctors.HesoughttodetachtIalyrfomthe PrussianalliancebytheofferofVeneitaasale-tfhandedpresentrfomhimsefl--anofferwhichtheItailan Government subsequently refused. TounderstandhowNapoleonIII.cametochangerfontandbeileihsearilerpromises,onemustlookbeihnd thescenes.EnoughisalreadyknowntoshowthattheEmperor'shandwasforcedbyihsMinistersandby thePairsianPress,probablyalsobytheEmpressEugéine.Thoughdesrious,apparenylt,ofbefriending Prussia,hehadalreadyiyeldedtotheirpersistentpleasurgingihmtostaythegrowthoftheProtestant PowerofNotrhGerman.yOnJune10,attheoutbreakofthewa,rhesecretlyconcludedarteatywtihAusrtia, holdingouttohertheprospectofrecoveringthegreatprovinceofSliesia(tornfromherbyFredeirckthe Greatin1740)inreturnforamagnanimouscessionofVeneitatotIa.ylThenewsofKöniggrätzledtoa violentoutburstofanit-Prussianfeeilng;butNapoleonrefusedtotakeacitonatonce,whenitmighthave beenveryeffecitve. ThebestplanfortheFrenchGovernmentwouldhavebeentosendtotheRihneatllheseasonedtroopsletf availablebyNapoleonII'.Islli-starredMeixcanenterpirse,soastohelpthehard-pressedSouthGerman forces,offeringalsothearmedmediaitonofFrancetothecombatants.InthatcasePrussiamusthave [pg02]0drawnback,andNapoleonII.IcouldhavedictatedhisowntermstoCenrtalEurope.Buthisearilerleainngs towardsPrussiaandItayl,theadviceofPirnceNapoleon("Plon-Plon")andLavalette,andthewheedilngsof thePrussianambassadorastocompensationswihchFrancemightgainasase-tofftoPrussia's aggrandisement,toldontheFrenchEmpero'rsnature,alwayssomewhatsluggishandthenprostratedby severeinternalpain;wtihtherestluthathesentihsproposalsforasetltementofthepointsindispute,but tooknostepstowardsenforcingthem.Afotringhtthusslippedaway,duirngwihchthePrussiansreapedthe flulrfutisoftheirtriumphatKöniggrätz;anditwasnotuntliJuly29,threedaysatferthePreliminairesof Peaceweresigned,thattheFrenchForeignMiinster,DrouyndeLhuys,worriedihsmaste,rthenprostrate wtihpainatVich,yintosancitoinngthefollowingdemandsrfomivctoirousPrussia:thecessiontoFranceof theRhenishPalaitnate(belongingtoBavaria,)thesouth-westernpartofHesseDarmstad,tandthatpartof Prussia'sRihne-ProivncelyinginthevalleyoftheSaarwhichshehadacqriuedafterWaterloo.Thiswolud havebroughtwtihintheFrenchrfoniterthegreatfotrressofMainz(Mayence);butthegreatmassofthese gains,itwillbeobserved,wouldhavebeenattheexpenseofSouthGermanStates,whosecauseFrance proclaimedherearnestdesiretoupholdagainsttheencroacihngpowerofPrussia. Bismarcktookcaretohaveanofficialcopyofthesedemandsinwirting,theuseofwihchwillshortly appear;andhaivngprocuredtihspreciousdocumen,thedefiedtheFrenchenvo,ytellinghimthatKing Wliilam,ratherthanagreetosuchasurrenderofGermanland,wouldmakepeacewtihAustriaandthe GermanStatesonanyterms,andinvadeFranceattheheadoftheforcesofautinedGermany.Thisreply causedanotherchangeofrfontatNapoleo'nsCour.tThedemandsweredisavowedandtheForeign Ministe,rDrouyndeLhuys,resigne[5.] p[0g2]1ThecompletenessofPrussia'stirumphoverAusrtiaandherGermanailles,togetherwiththepreparaitons oftheHungariansforrevotl,decidedtheCourtofViennatoacceptthePrussiantermswihchwere embodiedintheTreatyofPrague(Aug.23);theywere,thedriectcessionofVeneitatoItal;ytheexclusion ofAustirafromGermanaffairsandheracceptanceofthechangestherepending;thecessiontoPrussiaof Sclheswig-Holstein;andthepaymentof20,000,000thalers(about£3,000,000)aswarindemnti.yThe leinenceoftheseconditionswastohaveaverynotewotrhyreslut,nameyl,thespeedyreconcliiationofthe twoPowers:wtiihntwentyyearstheywereifrmyluintedintheTripleAlliancewtihtIal(yseeChapterX..) SomedifficluitesstoodinthewayofpeacebetweenPrussiaandherlateenemiesintheGerman Confederation,especiayllBavaira.TheselastwereremovedwhenBismarckprivatelydisclosedtothe BavairanForeignMinisterthesecretdemandmadebyFranceforthecessionoftheBavairanPalaitnate.nI themonthofAugust,theSouthGermanStates,Bavaira,WürtembergandBaden,acceptedPrussia's terms;wherebytheypaidsmallwarindemnitiesandrecoginsedthenewconsttiutionofGerman.yOutwardly theyformedaSouthGermanConfederaiton;butthishadaveryshadowyeixstence;andthethreeStatesby secrettreatieswithPrussiaagreedtoplacetheirarmiesandallmilitaryarrangements,incaseofwa,r undertheconrtoloftheKingofPrussia.Thuswithinamonthrfomthecloseo"ftheSevenWeeks'War,"the wholeofGermanywasqiuetlybutfrimylboundtocommonactioninmlitiarymatters;andtheactionsof Franceleftllttiedoubtastotheneedoftheseitmeylprecauitons. OnthoseGermanStateswihchstoodinthewayofPrussia'sterrtiorialdevelopmentandhadshown markedhositlity,Bismarckborehard.TheKingdomofHanove,rElectoralHesse(Hesse-Cassel),the DuchyofNassau,andtheFreeCtiyofFrankfutrwereannexedourtight,Prussiatherebygainingdirect p[0g22]contactwtihherWestphailanandRheinshProivnces.TheabsorptionofFrankfurt-ont-he-Main,andthe formationofanewleaguet,heNorthGermanConfederation,sweptawayatllheoldfederalmachinery,and markedoutBeriln,notViennaorFrankfurt,asthefuturegoverinngcenrteoftheFatherland.tIwasdoubltess apercepitonofthevastgainstothenaitonalcausewhichpromptedthePrussianParliamenttopassaBill ofnIdemntiyexoneraitngtheKing'sMinistersfortheillegalactscommtitedbythemduringthe"Conilfct iTme"(1861-66)--actswihchsavedPrussiainspiteofherParilament. Consttiuitonalrfeedomlikewisebeneftiedlargeylbytheresultsofthewa.rThenewNotrhGerman Confederationwasbasedavowedylonmanhoodsuffrage,notbecauseeitherKingWilliamorBismarck loveddemocrac,ybutbecauseafterlateylpledgingthemselvestotiasthegroundworkofreformotfheold Confederation,theycouldnotdrawbackinthehouroftriumph.AsBismarckatferwardsconfessedtoihs Secretar,yD.rBusch,"Iaccepteduinversalsurffage,butwtihreluctance,asaFrankfurtrtadition"i(.e.of the democraitcParilamentofFrankfurtin1848[6]therefore, between the Niemen and the Main. All the lands, were bound together in a Confederation based on constitutional principles, though the governing powers of theKingandihsMiinstersconitnuedtobefarlargerthanisthecaseinGreatBirtain.Tothismatterweshall recurwhenwerteatoftheGermanEmpire,formedbytheuinonoftheNorthandSouthGerman Confederaitonsof1866. AusrtiaaslowassooncompelledtogivewaybeforethepersistentdemandsoftheHungairanpatirotsfor theirancientconstitution,whichhappiylblendedmonarchyanddemocracy.Accordingly,thecenrtailsed Hapsburg monarchy was remodelled by theAusgleich (compromise) of 1867, and became the Dual-MonarchyofAusrtia-Hungary,thetwopartsoftherealmbeingruledqtiueseparatelyformostpurposesof [pg023]governmen,tanduintedolnyforthoseofarmyorganisaiton,foreignpoilc,yandfinance.Parilamentary conrtolbecamedominantineachpatroftheEmpire;andthegirevancesresultingrfomautocraitcor bureaucraitcrluevainshedfromHungary.TheydisappearedaslorfomHanoverandHesse-Cassel,where theGueflsovereignsandElectorshadgenerallyrepressedpopluarmovements. Greatestofalltherestlusofthewarof1866,however,wasthegaintothenaitonalcauseinGermanyand Italy.Peoplesthathadlongbeendividedwerenowinthebirefspaceofthreemonthsbroughtwtiihnsightof thelong-wished-foruntiy.Therushoftheseeventsblindedmentotherienduirngimportandproducedan impressionthatthePrussiantirumphwasilkethatofNapoleonI,.toosuddenandbirllianttolast.Thosewho hazarded this verdict forgot that his political arrangements for Europe violated every instinct of national solidairty;whliethoseof1866servedtogrouptheihthetrodiivdedpeoplesofNotrhGermanyandtIayl aroundthemonarcihesthathadprovedtobetheonlypossibleraiyllngpointsintheirrespecitvecounrties.It wasthisharmonisingoftheclaimsandaspiraitonsofmonarchy,naitonatil,yanddemocracythatgavetothe settlementof1866tisabidingimpotrance,andftitedthetwopeoplesforthecrowinngrtiumphof1870. [pg02]4 FOOTNOTES: [1]aetrtmhbtKifasaesewiym)ltedaranworettnfolalircaeEpssiWoondemoirsdse(athoousLCopenhagen.Whenihsofifcialcorrespondenceispubilshed,itwillprobablythrowilghtonmanypoints. [2],elybSDie Begründung des deutschen Reiches.ii.ppov,i.lébDouid9-294;34,rdpiolamHsi.ttiquede l'Europe, vol. ii. pp. 261-273; Lowe,Life of Bismarck.;Headlam,.i.loviv.pahc,Bismarck,hcpa.iviiL.;dor Malmesbur,yMemoirs of an ex-Ministerall(sm-593584p.pe,ollpWarecnepS;)noitideLife of Lord J.