The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

A. T. (Alfred Thayer) Mahan

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• Publié le: 01 décembre 2010
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• Langue: English
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The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783, by A. T. Mahan This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online atwww.gutenberg.org Title: The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783 Author: A. T. Mahan Release Date: September 26, 2004 [eBook #13529] Most recently updated: November 19, 2007 Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, 1660-1783*** E-text prepared by A. E. Warren and revised by Jeannie Howse, Frank van Drogen, Paul Hollander, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)

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THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY 1660-1783

By

A. T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.

Author of "The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793-1812," etc.

TWELFTHEDITION

BOSTON LITTLE, BROWN AND COMPANY

Copyright, 1890, B Y C APTAIN A. T. M AHAN .

Copyright, 1918, B Y E LLEN L YLE M AHAN .

P RINTEDINTHE U NITED S TATESO F A MER IC A

PREFACE.

The definite object proposed in this work is an examination of the general history of Europe and America with particular reference to the effect of sea power upon the course of that history. Historians generally have been unfamiliar with the conditions of the sea, having as to it neither special interest nor special knowledge; and the profound determining influence of maritime strength upon great issues has consequently been overlooked. This is even more true of particular occasions than of the general tendency of sea power. It is easy to say in a general way, that the use and control of the sea is and has been a great factor in the history of the world; it is more troublesome to seek out and show its exact bearing at a particular juncture. Yet, unless this be done, the acknowledgment of general importance remains vague and unsubstantial; not resting, as it should, upon a collection of special instances in which the precise effect has been made clear, by an analysis of the conditions at the given moments. A curious exemplification of this tendency to slight the bearing of maritime power upon events may be drawn from two writers of that English nation which more than any other has owed its greatness to the sea.

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"Twice," says Arnold in his History of Rome, "Has there been witnessed the struggle of the highest individual genius against the resources and institutions of a great nation, and in both cases the nation was victorious. For seventeen years Hannibal strove against Rome, for sixteen years Napoleon strove against England; the efforts of the first ended in Zama, those of the second in Waterloo." Sir Edward Creasy, quoting this, adds: "One point, however, of the similitude between the two wars has scarcely been adequately dwelt on; that is, the remarkable parallel between the Roman general who finally defeated the great Carthaginian, and the English general who gave the last deadly overthrow to the French emperor. Scipio and Wellington both held for many years commands of high importance, but distant from the main theatres of warfare. The same country was the scene of the principal military career of each. It was in Spain that Scipio, like Wellington, successively encountered and overthrew nearly all the subordinate generals of the enemy before being opposed to the chief champion and conqueror himself . Both Scipio and Wellington restored their countrymen's confidence in arms when shaken by a series of reverses, and each of them closed a long and perilous war by a complete and overwhelming defeat of the chosen leader and the chosen veterans of the foe." Neither of these Englishmen mentions the yet more striking coincidence, that in both cases the mastery of the sea rested with the victor. The Roman control of the water forced Hannibal to that long, perilous march through Gaul in which more than half his veteran troops wasted away; it enabled the elder Scipio, while sending his army from the Rhone on to Spain, to intercept Hannibal's communications, to return in person and face the invader at the Trebia. Throughout the war the legions passed by water, unmolested and unwearied, between Spain, which was Hannibal's base, and Italy, while the issue of the decisive battle of the Metaurus, hinging as it did upon the interior position of the Roman armies with reference to the forces of Hasdrubal and Hannibal, was ultimately due to the fact that the younger brother could not bring his succoring reinforcements by sea, but only by the land route through Gaul. Hence at the critical moment the two Carthaginian armies were separated by the length of Italy, and one was destroyed by the combined action of the Roman generals. On the other hand, naval historians have troubled themselves little about the connection between general history and their own particular topic, limiting themselves generally to the duty of simple chroniclers of naval occurrences. This is less true of the French than of the English; the genius and training of the former people leading them to more careful inquiry into the causes of particular results and the mutual relation of events. There is not, however, within the knowledge of the author any work that professes the particular object here sought; namely, an estimate of the effect of sea power upon the course of history and the prosperity of nations. As other histories deal with the wars, politics, social and economical conditions of countrie s, touching upon maritime matters only incidentally and generally unsympathetically, so the present work aims at putting maritime interests in the foreground, without divorcing them, however, from their surroundings of cause and effect in general history, but seeking to show how they modified the latter, and were modified by them. The period embraced is from 1660, when the sailing-ship era, with its distinctive features, had fairly begun, to 1783, the end of the American Revolution. While the thread of general history upon which the successive maritime events is strung is intentionally slight, the effort has been to present a clear as well as accurate outline. Writing as a naval officer in full sympathy with his profession, the author has not hesitated to digress freely on questions of naval policy, strategy, and tactics; but as technical language has been avoided, it is hoped that these matters, simply presented, will be found of interest to the unprofessional reader. A. T. MAHAN D ECEMBER , 1889.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY. History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely military Permanence of the teachings of history Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships Essential distinction between weather and lee gage Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions Consequent effect upon naval policy Lessons of history apply especially to strategy Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable

1 2 2 2 5 6 6 7 9

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I LLUSTRATIONS : The battle of the Nile, A.D. 1798 Trafalgar, A.D. 1805 Siege of Gibraltar, A.D. 1779-1782 Actium, B.C. 31, and Lepanto, A.D. 1571 Second Punic War, B.C. 218-201 Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly Wide scope of naval strategy

CHAPTER I. D ISCUSSIONOFTHE E LEMENTSOF S EA P OWER . The sea a great common Advantages of water-carriage over that by land Navies exist for the protection of commerce Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports Development of colonies and colonial posts Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies General conditions affecting Sea Power: I. Geographical position II. Physical conformation III. Extent of territory IV. Number of population V. National character VI. Character and policy of governments England Holland France Influence of colonies on Sea Power The United States: Its weakness in Sea Power Its chief interest in internal development Danger from blockades Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power Purpose of the historical narrative

CHAPTER II. S TATEOF E UROPEIN 1660.—S ECOND A NGLO -D UTCH W AR , 1665-1667.—S EA B ATTLESOF L OWESTOFTANDOFTHE F OUR D AYS Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV. Followed shortly by general wars French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu Condition of France in 1660 Condition of Spain Condition of the Dutch United Provinces Their commerce and colonies Character of their government Parties in the State Condition of England in 1660 Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships Conditions of other European States Louis XIV. the leading personality in Europe His policy Colbert's administrative acts Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665 Battle of Lowestoft, 1665 Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers The group formation The order of battle for sailing-ships The Four Days' Battle, 1666 Military merits of the opposing fleets Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion Ruyter in the Thames, 1667 Peace of Breda, 1667

10 11 12 13 14 22 22

25 25 26 27 28 28 29 35 42 44 50 58 59 67 69 82 83 84 85 87 88 89

90 91 92 93 94 96 97 98 99 99 101 102 103 104 105 107 108 109 112 115 117 126 127 132 132

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Military value of commerce-destroying

CHAPTER III. W AROF E NGLANDAND F RANCEIN A LLIANCEAGAINSTTHE U NITED P ROVINCES , 1672- 1674.—F INALLY , OF F RANCEAGAINST C OMBINED E UROPE , 1674-1678.—S EA B ATTLESOF S OLEBAY , THE T EXEL , AND S TROMBOLI . Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands Policy of the United Provinces Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden Anger of Louis XIV. Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt His memorial Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II. The two kings declare war against the United Provinces Military character of this war Naval strategy of the Dutch Tactical combinations of De Ruyter Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration Battle of Solebay, 1672 Tactical comments Effect of the battle on the course of the war Land campaign of the French in Holland Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland Accession to power of William of Orange Uneasiness among European States Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673 Naval battle of the Texel, 1673 Effect upon the general war Equivocal action of the French fleet General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions Military character of De Ruyter Coalition against France Peace between England and the United Provinces Sicilian revolt against Spain Battle of Stromboli, 1676 Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics De Ruyter killed off Agosta England becomes hostile to France Sufferings of the United Provinces Peace of Nimeguen, 1678 Effects of the war on France and Holland Notice of Comte d'Estrées

CHAPTER IV. E NGLISH R EVOLUTION .—W AROFTHE L EAGUEOF A UGSBURG , 1688-1697.—S EA B ATTLESOF B EACHY H EADAND L A H OUGUE . Aggressive policy of Louis XIV. State of French, English, and Dutch navies Accession of James II. Formation of the League of Augsburg Louis declares war against the Emperor of Germany Revolution in England Louis declares war against the United Provinces William and Mary crowned James II. lands in Ireland Misdirection of French naval forces William III. lands in Ireland Naval battle of Beachy Head, 1690 Tourville's military character Battle of the Boyne, 1690 End of the struggle in Ireland Naval battle of La Hougue, 1692 Destruction of French ships Influence of Sea Power in this war

132

139 139 140 140 141 142 143 144 144 144 145 145 146 147 148 149 150 150 150 151 152 154 155 156 157 158 158 159 161 163 165 166 167 168 169 170

173 174 175 176 177 178 178 178 179 180 181 182 184 186 186 189 190 191

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Attack and defence of commerce Peculiar characteristics of French privateering Peace of Ryswick, 1697 Exhaustion of France: its causes

CHAPTER V. W AROFTHE S PANISH S UCCESSION , 1702-1713.—S EA B ATTLE O F M ALAGA . Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou Death of the King of Spain Louis XIV. accepts the bequests He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria Declarations of war The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain Affair of the Vigo galleons Portugal joins the allies Character of the naval warfare Capture of Gibraltar by the English Naval battle of Malaga, 1704 Decay of the French navy Progress of the land war Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca Disgrace of Marlborough England offers terms of peace Peace of Utrecht, 1713 Terms of the peace Results of the war to the different belligerents Commanding position of Great Britain Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power Depressed condition of France Commercial prosperity of England Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711 War between Russia and Sweden

CHAPTER VI. T HE R EGENCYIN F RANCE .—A LBERONIIN S PAIN .—P OLICIESOF W ALPOLEAND F LEURI . —W AROFTHE P OLISH S UCCESSION .—E NGLISH C ONTRABAND T RADEIN S PANISH A MERICA .—G REAT B RITAINDECLARES W ARAGAINST S PAIN .—1715-1739. Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV. Accession of George I. Regency of Philip of Orleans Administration of Alberoni in Spain Spaniards invade Sardinia Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France Spaniards invade Sicily Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718 Failure and dismissal of Alberoni Spain accepts terms Great Britain interferes in the Baltic Death of Philip of Orleans Administration of Fleuri in France Growth of French commerce France in the East Indies Troubles between England and Spain English contraband trade in Spanish America Illegal search of English ships Walpole's struggles to preserve peace War of the Polish Succession Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies Bourbon family compact France acquires Bar and Lorraine

193 195 197 198

201 202 202 203 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 215 216 217 218 219 219 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231

232 232 233 234 235 235 236 237 239 239 239 241 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 247 248 248 249

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England declares war against Spain Morality of the English action toward Spain Decay of the French navy Death of Walpole and of Fleuri

CHAPTER VII.

W ARBETWEEN G REAT B RITAINAND S PAIN , 1739.—W AROFTHE A USTRIAN S UCCESSION , 1740.—F RANCEJOINS S PAINAGAINST G REAT B RITAIN , 1744.—S EA B ATTLESOF M ATTHEWS , A NSON , AND H AWKE .—P EACEOF A IX - LA -C HAPELLE , 1748. Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783 Neglect of the navy by French government Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India Condition of the contending navies Expeditions of Vernon and Anson Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession England allies herself to Austria Naval affairs in the Mediterranean Influence of Sea Power on the war Naval battle off Toulon, 1744 Causes of English failure Courts-martial following the action Inefficient action of English navy Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745 Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power France overruns Belgium and invades Holland Naval actions of Anson and Hawke Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Étenduère Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs La Bourdonnais reduces Madras Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 Madras exchanged for Louisburg Results of the war Effect of Sea Power on the issue

CHAPTER VIII.

S EVEN Y EARS ' W AR , 1756-1763.—E NGLAND ' S O VERWHELMING P OWERAND C ONQUESTSONTHE S EAS , IN N ORTH A MERICA , E UROPE , AND E ASTAND W EST I NDIES . —S EA B ATTLES : B YNGOFF M INORCA ; H AWKEAND C ONFLANS ; P OCOCKAND D'A CHÉ IN E AST I NDIES . Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy He is recalled from India His policy abandoned by the French Agitation in North America Braddock's expedition, 1755 Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756 Byng sails to relieve the place Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756 Characteristics of the French naval policy Byng returns to Gibraltar He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot Formal declarations of war by England and France England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war France is drawn into a continental struggle The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England Operations in North America Fall of Louisburg, 1758 Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760 Influence of Sea Power on the continental war English plans for the general naval operations Choiseul becomes Minister in France

250 250 252 253

254 254 255 258 259 261 262 262 263 264 265 267 268 269 269 269 270 271 272 273 275 276 277 277 278 279

281 281 282 282 283 284 285 285 286 286 287 290 290 291 291 292 293 293 293 294 294 295 296 297

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He plans an invasion of England Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759 Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen Consequent frustration of the invasion of England Project to invade Scotland Sailing of the Brest fleet Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759 Accession of Charles III. to Spanish throne Death of George II. Clive in India Battle of Plassey, 1757 Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India Naval actions between Pocock and D'Aché, 1758, 1759 Destitute condition of French naval stations in India The French fleet abandons the struggle Final fall of the French power in India Ruined condition of the French navy Alliance between France and Spain England declares war against Spain Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies French and Spaniards invade Portugal The invasion repelled by England Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters Spain sues for peace Losses of British mercantile shipping Increase of British commerce Commanding position of Great Britain Relations of England and Portugal Terms of the Treaty of Paris Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain Results of the maritime war Results of the continental war Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain British success due to maritime superiority Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets

CHAPTER IX. C OURSEOF E VENTSFROMTHE P EACEOF P ARISTO 1778.—M ARITIME W AR C ONSEQUENTUPONTHE A MERICAN R EVOLUTION .—S EA B ATTLEOFF U SHANT . French discontent with the Treaty of Paris Revival of the French navy Discipline among French naval officers of the time Choiseul's foreign policy Domestic troubles in Great Britain Controversies with the North American colonies Genoa cedes Corsica to France Dispute between England and Spain about the Falkland Islands Choiseul dismissed Death of Louis XV. Naval policy of Louis XVI. Characteristics of the maritime war of 1778 Instructions of Louis XVI. to the French admirals Strength of English navy Characteristics of the military situation in America The line of the Hudson Burgoyne's expedition from Canada Howe carries his army from New York to the Chesapeake Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777 American privateering Clandestine support of the Americans by France Treaty between France and the Americans

297 298 299 300 300 300 302 304 304 305 306 307 307 309 310 310 311 313 313 314 316 316 316 317 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 324 325 326 327 328 329

330 331 332 333 334 334 334 335 336 336 337 338 339 341 341 342 343 343 343 344 345 346

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Vital importance of the French fleet to the Americans The military situation in the different quarters of the globe Breach between France and England Sailing of the British and French fleets Battle of Ushant, 1778 Position of a naval commander-in-chief in battle

CHAPTER X. M ARITIME W ARIN N ORTH A MERICAAND W EST I NDIES , 1778-1781.—I TS I NFLUENCE UPONTHE C OURSEOFTHE A MERICAN R EVOLUTION .—F LEET A CTIONSOFF G RENADA , D OMINICA , AND C HESAPEAKE B AY . D'Estaing sails from Toulon for Delaware Bay, 1778 British ordered to evacuate Philadelphia Rapidity of Lord Howe's movements D'Estaing arrives too late Follows Howe to New York Fails to attack there and sails for Newport Howe follows him there Both fleets dispersed by a storm D'Estaing takes his fleet to Boston Howe's activity foils D'Estaing at all points D'Estaing sails for the West Indies The English seize Sta. Lucia Ineffectual attempts of D'Estaing to dislodge them D'Estaing captures Grenada Naval battle of Grenada, 1779; English ships crippled D'Estaing fails to improve his advantages Reasons for his neglect French naval policy English operations in the Southern States D'Estaing takes his fleet to Savannah His fruitless assault on Savannah D'Estaing returns to France Fall of Charleston De Guichen takes command in the West Indies Rodney arrives to command English fleet His military character First action between Rodney and De Guichen, 1780 Breaking the line Subsequent movements of Rodney and De Guichen Rodney divides his fleet Goes in person to New York De Guichen returns to France Arrival of French forces in Newport Rodney returns to the West Indies War between England and Holland Disasters to the United States in 1780 De Grasse sails from Brest for the West Indies, 1781 Engagement with English fleet off Martinique Cornwallis overruns the Southern States He retires upon Wilmington, N.C., and thence to Virginia Arnold on the James River The French fleet leaves Newport to intercept Arnold Meets the English fleet off the Chesapeake, 1781 French fleet returns to Newport Cornwallis occupies Yorktown De Grasse sails from Hayti for the Chesapeake Action with the British fleet, 1781 Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781 Criticism of the British naval operations Energy and address shown by De Grasse Difficulties of Great Britain's position in the war of 1778 The military policy best fitted to cope with them Position of the French squadron in Newport, R.I., 1780 Great Britain's defensiveposition and inferior numbers

347 347 350 350 351 353

359 359 360 360 360 361 362 362 363 363 365 365 366 367 367 370 371 372 375 375 376 376 376 376 377 377 378 380 381 381 381 381 382 382 382 382 383 383 384 385 385 385 386 387 387 388 389 390 390 392 392 393 394 396

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