Digital Research, Revised Edition

Ananda Mitra

Description

Every digital tool, from personal music players to the computers used to land spacecrafts on Mars, is built around the basic principles of the binary number system. In the 17th century, German mathematician Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated that all numbers could be represented using only two digits: 0 and 1. His system allowed scientists to combine the digits to do computations and store information in a way that was simple and easy to interpret. Modern digital systems became possible by converting things like sound waves into the binary system. Digital Research, Revised Edition examines how scientists and researchers have used digital systems to produce some of the tools and gadgets that we use in our everyday lives. It also looks at the effects technology has had on quality of life and how the applications of digital systems have impacted our culture and society by providing new ways of doing things.

Sujets

• Scholarly
• Computers
• Young Adult Nonfiction
• Informatique
• Academia
• Education
• Research
• Technical
• Digital
• Technique
• Information

Informations

• Publié par: Infobase Publishing
• Date de parution: 01 mars 2020
• Nombre de lectures: 0
• EAN13: 9781438182667
• Langue: English

Extrait

Digital Research, Revised Edition
Copyright © 2020 by Infobase
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Contents Chapters Before Digital Tools Making Connections Alternative Learning Resources: Media Alternative Learning Resources: Digital Managing New Technologies People of the Digital World Recent Developments: Digital Research Support Materials Chronology Further Resources
Chapters
Before Digital Tools

Every digital tool, from the personal digital music player to the computers used to land spacecrafts on Mars, is built around the basic principles of the binary number system. The binary system was first clearly documented by Gottfried Leibniz, a seventeenth-century German mathematician, who demonstrated that all numbers could be represented using only two digits. Until that time, most mathematical computations were based on a decimal system using 10 digits. Leibniz's system offered a simpler way of doing mathematical computations. Leibniz suggested using 0 and 1; in this system, the digit 0 represented the absence of something, and the digit 1 represented the presence of something. For example, a lightbulb that is on is represented by 1, and when shut off, it is represented by 0.
This system allowed scientists to combine the digits to do computations and store information in a way that was simple and easy to interpret. Modern digital systems became possible by converting much of everyday phenomena, such as sound waves, into the binary system; this way, sound could be stored as a series of "0s" and "1s," giving rise to digital sound.

All digital information is stored as a combination of two digits: 0 and 1. It is possible to convert the information stored as digital information by a simple mathematical process where the digit in the zero place is multiplied by 4 and so on, eventually producing the decimal equivalent of the binary number.
Source: Infobase.
The first step in using a digital system is to decide what the system will do. Most tools are manufactured to have a purpose. Using technology has a specific goal, and engineers make tools to do specific tasks. The usefulness of a technology is dependent on how well it accomplishes the intended task, and improvements in technology are designed to perform a specific function better. For example, a hand saw, which was developed to cut wood, may allow a carpenter to cut 10 pieces of wood in an hour, while an electric saw could double that number. The electric saw represents an improvement because it accomplishes the task of cutting wood much better.
There are some tasks that can be vastly improved by using digital systems. The digital system by itself is a novel way of doing mathematical problems, and its observance of logical steps and rules makes the system attractive to many kinds of tasks. Any work that requires strict accuracy when computing information can benefit from digital systems and machines that do mathematical operations using only two digits. The mathematical problem is far simpler using two digits rather than 10 digits.
In many cases, the answer obtained by the calculation becomes information that can be used to make specific decisions that can be put into decision trees. In a decision tree, the outcome of a test is used to decide what the next step in a process needs to be. For example, it is possible to set up a system in which a heater will turn on if the temperature inside a house falls under a preset value. Such a system does not need any human control if it can be instructed to measure the temperature constantly and make a decision based on the measurement. The digital system is set up to compare the measured temperature with the preset value and make a decision to turn on the heater under appropriate conditions. Decision trees like this can become quite complicated as different measurements are taken, which all need to be compared with preset values, and various components must turn on or off based on the computations. In such cases, it is easier to do the computations if all the values are binary numbers and the final decision can be based on a binary number as well, with "1" indicating a decision to turn on a switch.
Sometimes such measurements, computations, and decisions must be made in a very short time, and the speed of computation becomes especially important. Consider, for example, a situation in which a car is driven entirely by a computer. In this case many measurements regarding speed, obstacles, road conditions, etc., must be constantly used to make instantaneous decisions about how fast the car must go and how it should be steered. These situations require digital systems that can evaluate data and make rapid decisions. CNN.com reported on the winning car in a computer-aided car design challenge sponsored by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense that develops new technology for the military. The car that won the competition was described as a machine that "could evaluate data in milliseconds and decide whether it was correct or not." Any application that requires taking accurate measurements, doing computations on the measurements, and making logical decisions based on the measurements is well suited for the use of digital systems. It is eventually up to scientists and engineers to determine what applications will benefit from which form of digital systems.
Defining A Tool
Human beings are one of only a few species who are able to design a tool to make a task simpler. Few other species are able to make instruments that are used in a purposeful manner. One example of another tool-using animal is the chimpanzee, which uses instruments to do specific tasks. A tool is defined in the Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary as "something (as an instrument or apparatus) used in performing an operation." Based on this and similar definitions, a tool has a purpose. Usually a person working with a tool would know what it is used for. Yet humans have been able to refine the use of tools to such an extent that much of modern civilization has been possible because humans have been able to develop tools that accomplish difficult tasks with great ease.
A tool becomes most effective when it is used for its specific purpose. Humans are able to design very specific tools that meet specific needs. Tools are also meant to make completing a task more efficient. It would be relatively pointless to invent a tool that makes it more difficult to do something. The value of a tool is dependent on how efficiently it can do a task. For example, a hammer is useful to efficiently nail together two pieces of wood, but an electric nail gun can perform that task more effectively. A person using a hammer might get tired after an hour of pounding, while a person with a nail gun might be able to continue to work for a longer period. As tools become more complex, people need to learn the appropriate skills to use tools efficiently. Anyone with some physical strength might be able to use a hammer, but it takes specific skills to use a nail gun. This is true for most tools, as the users must develop some skills to be able to employ them correctly.
Digital tools share characteristics with other tools because digital tools are meant to make some tasks easier. For example, a digital calculator makes it much easier to do calculations than a traditional adding machine like the abacus, and a computer can be even more efficient. The greatest advantage offered by digital tools is that they can be designed to do tasks in a systematic manner, and once the instructions are provided, the tools will continue to operate in a predictable manner. This is why instruments like the TiVo, which digitally records television programs, are so popular. The user needs to program it only once, and the TiVo will faithfully follow the instructions.
Artificial intelligence can take the concept of tools-helping-people to a new level. Technologies already exist to automate mundane tasks for people. It's becoming commonplace for people to have robots that vacuum the floors. Other technologies, like digital assistants Google Home and Amazon Echo, can increase the independence of people with disabilities, which helps to improve their quality of life.
While these tools are beneficial to people, the research, development, and implementation of them require specialized skills. Often, developers must be experts in advanced math, engineering, computer science, and robotics, among other disciplines. Companies look for people with advanced degrees when hiring. However, even when they have difficulty finding qualified candidates, they will look to people with the proper undergrad skills.
Basic and Applied Research
From the early days of human civilization, there has been a need to keep track of expenses and income, leading to the development of accountancy. Accountancy is the communication of a business's financial information to people like shareholders and managers using financial statements and other bookkeeping methods. This communication is done by three divisions: accounting, bookkeeping, and auditing. Previously, accountancy was done using paper and pencil, and systematic methods were used to keep track of expenses. Economists and accountants spent a significant amount of time working out the most efficient mathematical systems to keep track of numbers. Later, with the availability of digital systems, record keeping and computations could be done with binary digits. This move was pos