The Gender Politics of the Namibian Liberation Struggle

Martha Akawa

Description

Women’s contributions against apartheid under the auspices of the Namibian liberation movement SWAPO and their personal experiences in exile take center stage in this study. Male and female leadership structures in exile are analysed whilst the sexual politics in the refugee camps and the public imagery of female representation in SWAPO’s nationalism receive special attention. The party’s public pronouncements of women empowerment and gender equality are compared to the actual implementations of gender politics during and after the liberation struggle.

Sujets

• Politique
• History

Informations

• Publié par: Basler Afrika Bibliographien
• Date de parution: 03 mai 2014
• Nombre de lectures: 0
• EAN13: 9783905758504
• Langue: English
• Poids de l'ouvrage: 19 Mo

Extrait

The Gender Politics of the Namibian Liberation Struggle

Basel Namibia Studies Series

Basel Namibia Studies Series

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Zedekia NgavirueP OLITICAL P ARTIESAND I NTEREST G ROUPSIN S OUTH W EST A FRICA (N AMIBIA ) A S TUDYOFA P LURAL S OCIETY (1972) (1997)

Wolfgang Werner‘N OONEWILLBECOMERICH ’. E CONOMYAND S OCIETYINTHE H ERERO R E - SERVESIN N AMIBIA , 1915–1946 (1998)

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Tony EmmettP OPULAR R ESISTANCEANDTHE R OOTSOF N ATIONALISMIN N AMIBIA , 1915–1966 (1999)

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M A ARTHA KAWA Preface by Bience Gawanas

The Gender Politics of the Namibian Liberation Struggle

Basel Namibia Studies Series 13

Basler Afrika Bibliographien 2014

The publication of this book has been kindly supported by the Basel University Dissertation Fund.

© 2014 Authors and Photographers © 2014 Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Centre & Southern Africa Library Klosterberg 23 PO Box 2037 CH 4051 Basel Switzerland www.baslerafrika.ch

All rights reserved. (ĶRUWV ZHUH PDGH WR WUDFH WKH FRS\ULJKW KROGHUV RI WKH LOOXVWUDWLRQV DQG WKH PDS XVHG LQ WKLV publication. We apologise for any incomplete or incorrect acknowledgements.

Cover photograph: “Female People’s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) commanders at a SWAPO Woman’s Council rally in Lubango, Angola. 1988”. Published by SWAPO Woman’s Council: “Viva! Namibian women in the struggle”. Windhoek, 1994, p. 6. Photographer: Joseph Nekaya.

Basic Cover Design: VischerVettiger Basel $GDSWHG &RYHU 'HVLJQ 3HWUD .HUFNKRĶ Layout: Jos Thorne

ISBN 978–3–905758–26–9 ISSN 2234–9561

Contents

Prefaceby Advocate Bience Gawanas Acknowledgements Introduction Researching gender politics Structure of the book Methodology and notes on sources Oral sources Primary sources Secondary sources Themes and debates Oral sources Women and the war of liberation Women and the military The roles and status of African women in pre- and colonial societies Female bodies: Sites of violence A comparative glance at the question of sexual abuse and sexuality in the situation of war Camp experiences: Inclusions and exclusions Feminism vs. liberation/emancipation of women in African national liberation movements The aftermath: Women after the liberation struggle

1.

“There can be no national liberation without the full participation of women”: The role and position of women in the liberation struggle The people’s war Periodisation of the liberation struggle: The political environment 1970–1978 1979–1979 Mobilisation inside the country: Rallying women, women at rallies “Who do they think SWAPOs are?”: Provision of assistance to SWAPO “Beware of your political preferences”: Consequences “A woman’s place is in the struggle”: The role played by women in exile The establishment of the SWAPO Women’s Council

xi xv 1 4 4 6 6 8 9 10 10 12 14

16 20 21 23

26 27

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34 35 36 37 37 41 45 48 49

2.

Mobilisation in exile Platforms and Media International conferences and networking Meetings in the settlements 10 December and 8 March “The Namibian woman” Sisterhood and Solidarity The role of women in the settlements/camps Caring of the young ones Nursing Food production Manufacturing and studying Sisters in arms: Women in the military wing Summary

Idealised struggle? Public and Visual Representations of Women Heroines and Legends: (Re-)presenting the women leaders and icons of the struggle Kakurukaze Mungunda Meekulu Putuse Appolus Dr Libertina Inaviposa Amathila Pendukeni Kaulinge Penny Hilite Hashoongo Angela Yvone Davis Inclusion and exclusion “This is what we stand for”: Public declarations by SWAPO’s male and female leadership Liberated zones The politics of gendered bodies and symbolic representations Mothers of the nation The face of repression Floggings Kassinga Massacre Rape – A strategy for repression Rauna Nambinga Lucia Hamutenya Ida Jimmy The visual liberation of women

51 54 54 55 56 57 57 60 60 60 61 61 61 64

66

67 68 69 71 72 73 74 76

76 82 84 89 92 92 94 97 98 100 100 101

3.

4.

The legacy of the war Victims, perpetrators or actors? Summary

Women and the SWAPO Refugee Camps The history of the camps Arrival at a camp Structures and infrastructures A normal day in a camp Normality against all odds Threats and challenges Attacks Lack of basic necessities Access to positions of leadership and control Helplessness and despair Reminiscences: The good old days Comradeship “SWAPO was our mother and our father” “We left those issues here and found them when we got back to Namibia” Summary

Sexual Politics in the Camps Shifting sexuality patterns in Namibia Polygamy and the colonial state 'HķQLWLRQV RI UDSH DQG VH[XDO DEXVH Circumstances under which rape and sexual abuse were committed against women The trips between Namibia and the host country “Ondjolo”: Goodies for sex “No comrade says ‘no’ to another comrade” “Rape? I do not know what you are talking about” One hand washes the other Controlling female sexuality: No foreign men Some relationships were genuine The position of SWAPO regarding rape and sexual abuse Disciplinary measures and structures Attitudes towards polygamy in post-independent Namibia Momeya iha mu inyenge mwaana okapuka Summary

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107 108 110 111 113 115 117 117 117 118 119 119 120 120

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131 131 132 135 137 140 141 144 145 146 149 153 153

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6.

Education and Training Education and training in apartheid Namibia Education in exile Pre-school education Formal education Secondary education Upper Secondary Education The Namibia Secondary Technical School in Loudima Vocational training Tertiary education, scholarships and institutions of Higher Learning The United Nations Institute for Namibia International university and scholarships Informal education: Adult education programmes and skill development Women’s programmes Nutrition and childcare Tailoring, weaving and knitting projects Teaching materials and content Feminist-oriented education Family planning The relationship between education, development, employment, power sharing and equal relations Liberation of women through education Gender equality and family relations Summary

“All has not been won. Not everything has been lost”: Women in post-independent Namibia Formal equality Substantive equality )URP D :RPHQ÷V 'HVN WR D IXOO\ĸHGJHG PLQLVWU\ National policies and documents Various national commitments International agreements Law and policy reform on gender Non-governmental organizations and civil society The struggle continues Power-sharing and decision-making at the political level Power-sharing and decision-making at the political level

155 155 159 160 160 161 161 161 162 162 162 163

166 166 167 167 168 169 169

171 173 175 176

177

178 178 178 179 180 180 180 182 183 183 185

Power-sharing and decision-making at the household level Education for all Women and employment Women and the land Gender-based violence “You are your own liberators” Summary

Epilogue Abbreviations List of Illustrations and Map Bibliography Archives Literature Internet sources Interview participants Index

187 187 189 190 190 191 193

195 199 201 203 203 204 217 217 219